C925 Earth: Inside and Out
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Free C925 Earth: Inside and Out Questions
1. What does the Richter scale actually measure?
- Damage caused
- Energy released
- Wave amplitude on seismograms
- Intensity felt by people
Explanation
The Richter scale, developed in 1935, measures the maximum amplitude of seismic waves recorded on a specific type of seismograph corrected for distance. Each whole number increase represents a tenfold increase in amplitude and roughly 31 times more energy released. While modern scales like moment magnitude (Mw) are preferred for large earthquakes, the Richter scale remains widely understood as a quick estimate of an earthquake’s size based on wave amplitude.
2. Which sedimentary structure indicates current direction in ancient rivers?
- Mud cracks
- Graded bedding
- Cross-bedding
- Ripple marks
Explanation
Cross-bedding forms when sand avalanches down the lee side of dunes or ripples, preserving inclined layers that point downstream. Measuring thousands of these paleocurrent indicators reveals ancient river flow directions and continental configurations millions of years ago.
3. Where is the earthquake’s focus located?
- On the surface directly above the rupture
- At the point where the fault first breaks underground
- At the seismograph station
- Along the entire fault plane
Explanation
The focus, or hypocenter, is the exact point within Earth where seismic energy is first released as the fault suddenly slips and rocks break. It marks the origin of the earthquake deep underground, often tens to hundreds of kilometers below the surface. The point directly above the focus on the Earth’s surface is called the epicenter, which is what news reports typically reference when locating an earthquake.
4. Which volcanic feature is a steep plug of viscous lava that solidifies in the vent?
- Cinder cone
- Shield volcano
- Lava dome
- Fissure
Explanation
Lava domes grow when thick rhyolitic or dacitic magma oozes into the crater and hardens, forming steep, blocky mounds. They often collapse to produce deadly pyroclastic flows, as at Mount Unzen in 1991.
5. Which rock texture contains hollow bubbles from trapped gas in lava?
- Porphyritic
- Phaneritic
- Vesicular
- Aphanitic
Explanation
Vesicular texture develops when gas bubbles are trapped as lava cools rapidly at the surface. Scoria (basaltic) and pumice (rhyolitic) are highly vesicular, with pumice so full of holes that it floats on water despite being glass.
6. What is the upper surface of the zone of saturation called?
- Capillary fringe
- Aquiclude
- Water table
- Perched water
Explanation
The water table marks the exact level below which the ground is fully saturated with water and above which pores contain air. It is not flat but mimics surface topography at a muted scale—higher under hills and lower under valleys. During rainy seasons the water table rises, and in dry periods it falls; wells must be drilled beneath this level to reliably produce water.
7. What is the primary hazard from a volcanic mudflow triggered by melting snow or heavy rain?
- Pyroclastic flow
- Ash fall
- Lava flow
- Lahar
Explanation
Lahars are fast-moving slurries of water, mud, and volcanic debris that rush down valleys at speeds up to 100 km/h, burying everything in their path. They form when eruptions melt glaciers, heavy rains mix with loose ash, or crater lakes breach. The 1985 Nevado del Ruiz eruption in Colombia generated lahars that killed over 20,000 people in the town of Armero, highlighting their devastating reach far beyond the volcano itself.
8. Which type of crust is thicker and less dense?
- Oceanic crust
- Continental crust
- Transitional crust
- Sima
Explanation
Continental crust averages 35–40 km thick (up to 70 km under mountain ranges) and has a granitic composition with density around 2.7 g/cm³, making it buoyant. Oceanic crust is only 5–10 km thick, basaltic, and denser at 3.0 g/cm³, which is why it subducts beneath continents at convergent boundaries rather than the reverse.
9. Which boundary marks the division between the mantle and outer core?
- Moho
- Conrad
- Gutenberg discontinuity
- Lehmann discontinuity
Explanation
The Gutenberg discontinuity is the seismic boundary approximately 2,900 km deep where the solid mantle ends and the liquid outer core begins. Here, P-wave velocity drops sharply and S-waves disappear entirely, proving the outer core is molten. Named after seismologist Beno Gutenberg, this boundary plays a crucial role in understanding Earth’s internal heat engine and magnetic field generation.
10. Which type of mass wasting moves as a coherent block along a curved slip surface?
- Rockfall
- Debris flow
- Slump
- Earthflow
Explanation
Slump occurs when a saturated mass of soil or weak rock rotates and slides downward along a spoon-shaped failure surface, often leaving a scalloped scarp at the head. Common along riverbanks and coastal cliffs, slumps can dam rivers temporarily.
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