C925 Earth: Inside and Out
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Free C925 Earth: Inside and Out Questions
1. How much stronger is a magnitude 8 earthquake compared to a magnitude 6?
- 2 times
- 32 times
- 100 times
- 1000 times
Explanation
The Richter and moment magnitude scales are logarithmic, meaning each whole number step represents a tenfold increase in wave amplitude. For energy release, the relationship is approximately 31 times per whole number. Therefore, a magnitude 8 earthquake releases about 31 × 31 = 961 times (rounded to 1000 times) more energy than a magnitude 6, which explains why great earthquakes cause dramatically more destruction than moderate ones.
2. In a sequence of sedimentary rocks containing an angular unconformity where tilted layers are truncated and overlain by horizontal beds, what prolonged sequence of geologic events does this surface represent: uplift followed by erosion followed by subsidence and renewed deposition?
- Disconformity
- Nonconformity
- Paraconformity
- Angular unconformity
Explanation
An angular unconformity records a dramatic break in the geologic record: older rocks were deformed, tilted, uplifted, and eroded to a nearly flat surface before new horizontal sediments were deposited atop the erosion surface. Hutton’s famous example at Siccar Point, Scotland, shows Devonian redbeds resting on nearly vertical Silurian greywacke, representing over 60 million years of missing time.
3. In regions where thick continental ice sheets repeatedly advanced and retreated during the Pleistocene, what distinctive depositional landform consists of unsorted mixtures of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders dumped directly by melting ice, often creating hummocky terrain with no internal layering?
- Drumlin
- Esker
- Moraine
- Kettle lake
Explanation
Moraines are ridges or mounds of till—unsorted glacial debris ranging from clay to house-sized boulders—that accumulate at ice margins or beneath the glacier. Terminal moraines mark the farthest advance of ice sheets, while ground moraine forms broad, rolling till plains. Long Island, Cape Cod, and much of the northern U.S. landscape were sculpted by moraines left by the Laurentide Ice Sheet.
4. Which fault has the hanging wall moving upward relative to the footwall?
- Normal fault
- Strike-slip fault
- Reverse fault
- Oblique-slip
Explanation
Reverse faults form under compressional stress when the hanging wall is forced up and over the footwall along a dip typically less than 45°. They shorten the crust and are common in mountain belts like the Alps and along subduction zones.
5. Which scale measures earthquake energy release more accurately for very large events?
- Richter scale
- Mercalli intensity
- Moment magnitude scale
- European Macroseismic
Explanation
Moment magnitude scale (Mw) calculates total energy from the area of fault rupture and average slip, making it reliable for great earthquakes (Mw 8+). Unlike the saturating Richter scale, Mw has no upper limit and is now the global standard.
6. What causes the symmetrical magnetic stripes on the seafloor?
- Periodic reversals of Earth’s magnetic field recorded in cooling lava
- Hotspot migration
- Continental rifting
- Subduction erosion
Explanation
As new oceanic crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, iron-rich minerals in cooling basalt align with Earth’s current magnetic field like tiny compass needles. When the magnetic field reverses (roughly every 200,000–300,000 years), newly formed crust records the opposite polarity. This creates parallel stripes of normal and reversed magnetization symmetrical on both sides of the ridge, providing direct proof of seafloor spreading and plate movement.
7. Which type of plate boundary creates mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys?
- Divergent
- Convergent
- Transform
- Hotspot
Explanation
Mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys form where two tectonic plates move away from each other, allowing magma from the mantle to rise and create new oceanic crust. This process, known as seafloor spreading, is characteristic of divergent plate boundaries. Examples include the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East African Rift. The upward movement of hot mantle material causes the crust to thin and crack, producing the ridge or valley features visible on Earth’s surface and beneath the oceans.
8. In a coastal environment where powerful storm waves repeatedly hurl pebbles against a cliff face, polishing and faceting the bedrock into smooth, multi-sided surfaces with sharp edges, which specific type of mechanical weathering process is responsible for creating these distinctive ventifacts?
- Frost wedging
- Thermal expansion
- Abrasion
- Salt crystallization
Explanation
Abrasion by wind- or water-driven particles acts like natural sandblasting, grinding and polishing exposed rock surfaces. In deserts and along stormy shores, ventifacts develop multiple flat faces oriented toward prevailing currents, with some examples from Antarctica preserving wind directions from millions of years ago.
9. Which type of seismic wave causes the most damage during an earthquake?
- P-waves
- S-waves
- Love waves
- Rayleigh waves
Explanation
Surface waves—Love and Rayleigh waves—travel along Earth’s surface and cause the ground to shake side-to-side and up-and-down, producing the prolonged, rolling motion that damages buildings most severely. Although slower than body waves, their large amplitudes and longer duration make them responsible for the majority of earthquake destruction in populated areas.
10. Which silicate mineral group makes up over 90% of Earth’s crust?
- Olivine
- Pyroxene
- Feldspar
- Quartz
Explanation
Feldspar is the most abundant group of minerals in Earth’s crust, comprising approximately 60% of its volume, which pushes the total silicate mineral content above 90% when combined with quartz, mica, and amphibole. Feldspars are framework silicates with a three-dimensional network of silica tetrahedra linked by aluminum, potassium, sodium, or calcium ions. They weather to form clay minerals and are essential components of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks worldwide.
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