Introduction to Psychology (C180)

PSYC 1010 C180: Introduction to Psychology Study Notes

Table of Contents

Introduction to Psychology

• Definition and Scope
• Major Perspectives in Psychology
• Research Methods in Psychology

Biological Bases of Behavior

The Nervous System

• The Brain and Behavior
• Genetics and Behavior

Developmental Psychology

• Theories of Development
• Cognitive and Social Development

Sensation and Perception

• Sensory Processes
• Perception and Interpretation

Learning and Memory

• Classical and Operant Conditioning
• Memory Processes and Forgetting

Cognition and Intelligence

• Thinking and Problem-Solving
• Theories of Intelligence

Motivation and Emotion

• Theories of Motivation
• Emotions and Stress

Personality and Psychological Disorders

• Theories of Personality
• Types of Psychological Disorders

Social Psychology

• Social Influence and Group Behavior
• Attitudes and Prejudice

Case Studies and Analysis

• Case Study 1: The Impact of Childhood Trauma on Adult Behavior
• Case Study 2: The Role of Social Media in Adolescent Self-Esteem

1. Introduction to Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It seeks to understand how individuals think, feel, and act in various contexts. The scope of psychology is broad, encompassing areas such as clinical psychology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, and social psychology.

Example: A clinical psychologist might study the effects of therapy on depression, while a social psychologist might examine how group dynamics influence decision-making.

1. Biological Perspective: Focuses on how genetics, the brain, and the nervous system influence behavior.
2. Cognitive Perspective: Examines how people perceive, think, and solve problems.
3. Behavioral Perspective: Studies how behavior is learned through conditioning and reinforcement.
4. Humanistic Perspective: Emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization.
5. Psychodynamic Perspective: Explores unconscious motives and childhood experiences.

Example: A cognitive psychologist might study how memory works, while a behavioral psychologist might investigate how rewards influence learning.

• Experimental Method: Involves manipulating one variable to observe its effect on another.
• Correlational Method: Examines the relationship between two variables without manipulation.
• Case Study: In-depth analysis of an individual or group.
• Survey Method: Collects data through questionnaires or interviews.

Example: An experimental study might test the effect of sleep deprivation on memory, while a correlational study might explore the relationship between stress and academic performance.

Introduction to psychology.

2. Biological Bases of Behavior

The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS consists of nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

Example: When you touch a hot stove, sensory neurons in your PNS send a signal to your CNS, which quickly sends a response to move your hand.

The brain is divided into several regions, each responsible for different functions:

• Frontal Lobe: Decision-making, planning, and personality.
• Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing and memory.
• Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing.
• Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.

Example: Damage to the frontal lobe can result in changes in personality and impaired decision-making.

Genetics play a significant role in behavior. Twin studies and adoption studies are often used to explore the heritability of traits.

Example: Identical twins raised apart may still exhibit similar personality traits, suggesting a genetic influence.

Multilevel integrative analyses of human behavior: social neuroscience and the complementing nature of social and biological approaches.

3. Developmental Psychology

1. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory: Describes how children’s thinking evolves through stages (e.g., sensorimotor, preoperational).

2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: Focuses on social and emotional development across the lifespan.
3. Attachment Theory (Bowlby): Explains how early relationships with caregivers shape future relationships.

Example: A child in Piaget’s preoperational stage might struggle with understanding conservation (e.g., thinking a taller glass holds more water).

Why be moral? A conceptual model from developmental psychology.

Cognitive development involves changes in thinking, while social development involves changes in relationships and social skills.

Example: Adolescents develop abstract thinking skills (cognitive) and form more complex peer relationships (social).

The role of intersensory redundancy in early perceptual, cognitive, and social development.

4. Sensation and Perception

Sensation is the process of detecting stimuli through sensory organs, while perception is the interpretation of those stimuli.

Example: When you see a red apple, your eyes detect the color (sensation), and your brain interprets it as an apple (perception).

Sensation and perception: A history of the philosophy of perception.

Perception is influenced by factors such as past experiences, expectations, and context.

Example: The Müller-Lyer illusion shows how our perception of line length can be influenced by the direction of arrowheads.

Husserl on sensation, perception, and interpretation.

5. Learning and Memory

• Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Learning through association (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs salivating at the sound of a bell).

• Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Learning through rewards and punishments (e.g., a rat pressing a lever for food).

Example: A child might learn to associate the sound of a bell with lunchtime (classical) or study harder to earn praise (operant).

Learning and memory: An integrated approach.

Memory involves encoding, storage, and retrieval. Forgetting can occur due to decay, interference, or retrieval failure.

Example: You might forget a name because it wasn’t encoded properly (encoding failure) or because similar names interfere (interference).

The importance of forgetting.

6. Cognition and Intelligence

Thinking involves mental processes such as reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving.

Example: Solving a math problem requires logical reasoning and the application of learned rules.

Cognition and intelligence: Identifying the mechanisms of the mind.

1. Spearman’s g Factor: Suggests a general intelligence underlying all cognitive abilities.
2. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: Proposes that intelligence is multifaceted (e.g., linguistic, musical, spatial).

Example: A person might excel in music (musical intelligence) but struggle with math (logical-mathematical intelligence).

7. Motivation and Emotion

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Suggests that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before pursuing higher-level goals.
2. Self-Determination Theory: Emphasizes intrinsic motivation and the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Example: A student might study hard to achieve good grades (extrinsic motivation) or because they enjoy learning (intrinsic motivation).

Cognition and motivation in emotion.

Emotions involve physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience. Stress is the body’s response to perceived threats.

Example: Feeling anxious before an exam involves increased heart rate (physiological), fidgeting (behavioral), and worry (cognitive).

Regulation of emotions under stress.

8. Personality and Psychological Disorders

1. Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory: Focuses on unconscious motives and childhood experiences.
2. Trait Theory: Describes personality in terms of stable traits (e.g., the Big Five: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism).

Example: A person high in extraversion might enjoy social gatherings, while someone high in neuroticism might experience more anxiety.

Personality and psychological disorders.

1. Anxiety Disorders: Characterized by excessive fear or worry (e.g., generalized anxiety disorder).
2. Mood Disorders: Involve disturbances in mood (e.g., depression, bipolar disorder).
3. Schizophrenia: A severe disorder characterized by hallucinations and delusions.

Example: A person with depression might experience persistent sadness, loss of interest in activities, and changes in appetite.

Measurement of psychological disorders using cognitive diagnosis models.

9. Social Psychology

Social influence refers to how others affect our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Group behavior involves how individuals act in groups.

Example: Conformity (e.g., Asch’s line experiment) and obedience (e.g., Milgram’s shock experiment) are examples of social influence.

Deconstructing social psychology.

Attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, or ideas. Prejudice involves negative attitudes toward a group.

Example: A person might have a positive attitude toward exercise but a negative attitude toward a rival sports team.

Prejudice and behavior: A review.

10. Case Studies and Analysis

Analysis: Sarah’s experiences align with attachment theory, which suggests that early trauma can disrupt the development of secure relationships. Her anxiety may also be linked to the biological effects of chronic stress on the brain.

Example: Sarah’s fear of abandonment might stem from her childhood experiences, leading her to avoid intimacy in adulthood.

Analysis: Social comparison theory explains how individuals evaluate themselves relative to others. Social media amplifies this by presenting idealized images, leading to negative self-perceptions.

Example: Jake’s constant exposure to edited photos and curated lifestyles might make him feel his own life is less fulfilling.

Q&A Section

Question 1:

A. Understanding how unconscious motives influence behavior
B. Studying how people perceive, think, and solve problems
C. Examining how genetics and brain structures affect behavior
D. Analyzing how rewards and punishments shape behavior

Correct Answer: 

B. Studying how people perceive, think, and solve problems
 

Explanation:
The cognitive perspective focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making. It seeks to understand how people process information and how these processes influence behavior. For example, a cognitive psychologist might study how people solve puzzles or remember information.

Why Other Options Are Incorrect:

A. Understanding how unconscious motives influence behavior: This describes the psychodynamic perspective, which emphasizes unconscious drives and childhood experiences.

C. Examining how genetics and brain structures affect behavior: This is the focus of the biological perspective, which looks at the role of the nervous system, hormones, and genetics in behavior.

D. Analyzing how rewards and punishments shape behavior: This is the focus of the behavioral perspective, which studies how learning through conditioning influences behavior.

Question 2:

A. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
B. Conditioned stimulus (CS)
C. Unconditioned response (UCR)
D. Neutral stimulus (NS)

Correct Answer:

D. Neutral stimulus (NS)
 

Explanation:
A neutral stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response before conditioning. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, the sound of a bell was initially a neutral stimulus because it did not cause dogs to salivate. After pairing the bell with food (an unconditioned stimulus), the bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicited salivation.

Why Other Options Are Incorrect:

A. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A UCS is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning (e.g., food causing salivation).

B. Conditioned stimulus (CS): A CS is a previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with a UCS, elicits a conditioned response.

C. Unconditioned response (UCR): A UCR is an unlearned, natural response to a UCS (e.g., salivation in response to food).

Question 3:

A. Esteem needs
B. Safety needs
C. Physiological needs
D. All of the above

Correct Answer: 

D. All of the above

Explanation:
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a five-tier model that prioritizes human needs. Physiological needs (e.g., food, water) must be met first, followed by safety needs (e.g., security), love and belonging needs (e.g., relationships), esteem needs (e.g., respect), and finally self-actualization (e.g., achieving one’s full potential). Therefore, all lower-level needs must be fulfilled before self-actualization can occur.

Why Other Options Are Incorrect:

A. Esteem needs: Esteem needs are important but come after physiological, safety, and love/belonging needs.

B. Safety needs: Safety needs are secondary to physiological needs but do not alone enable self-actualization.

C. Physiological needs: While physiological needs are the most basic, they are not the only prerequisite for self-actualization.

Question 4:

A. A child learning to fear dogs after being bitten
B. A student studying harder to earn a good grade
C. A person salivating at the sight of their favorite food
D. A baby blinking when a bright light is turned on

Correct Answer:
B. A student studying harder to earn a good grade

Explanation:
Operant conditioning involves learning through rewards and punishments. In this example, the student’s behavior (studying harder) is reinforced by the reward (a good grade). This is a classic example of positive reinforcement, where a desired behavior is encouraged by a positive outcome.

Why Other Options Are Incorrect:

A. A child learning to fear dogs after being bitten: This is an example of classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus (dogs) becomes associated with a negative outcome (being bitten).

C. A person salivating at the sight of their favorite food: This is also classical conditioning, where the sight of food (a conditioned stimulus) elicits a conditioned response (salivation).

D. A baby blinking when a bright light is turned on: This is a reflex action, not a learned behavior, and therefore not related to operant conditioning.