PHAR 6123 Exam 2 Chicago State University
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Free PHAR 6123 Exam 2 Chicago State University Questions
Which test typically uses degrees of freedom?
- Student's t-test
- Chi-square test
- Z-test
- Linear regression
Explanation
Correct Answer: A) Student's t-test
The Student's t-test is the statistical test most classically associated with degrees of freedom. Because the t-test is used when the population variance is unknown and must be estimated from the sample, degrees of freedom (df = n − 1) are used to determine the shape of the t-distribution and identify the appropriate critical value for hypothesis testing.
The t-distribution changes shape depending on the degrees of freedom — with smaller samples producing flatter, wider distributions, and larger samples approaching the normal distribution. While chi-square tests also use degrees of freedom, the t-test is the most direct and classic example in this context.
The z-test assumes known population variance and uses the standard normal distribution without relying on degrees of freedom.
Which of the following are challenges or limitations with using administrative claims data in order to validate medication adherence? Select all that apply.
- Patients may not have continuous enrollment with prescription medications during the study period
- Patients may not be able to accurately recall their medication-taking behavior
- Patients may be inaccurately calculated for patients who switch medications in their course of treatment
- Administrative claims cannot be calculated for patients who switch medications in their course of treatment
- Patients may attempt to bias the observer by pretending to adhere to therapy in their medication adherence counseling sessions
Explanation
Explanation:
Correct Answers: (A) Patients may not have continuous enrollment, (C) Patients may be inaccurately calculated for patients who switch medications, and (D) Administrative claims cannot be calculated for patients who switch medications
Administrative claims data has several limitations for measuring medication adherence. Gaps in insurance coverage lead to incomplete prescription records. When patients switch medications mid-treatment, adherence calculations become inaccurate or impossible. These are well-recognized limitations of claims-based adherence measures.
B. Patients may not accurately recall medication-taking behavior — This is a limitation of self-reported adherence measures, not administrative claims data, which is based on pharmacy fill records rather than patient recall. E. Patients may attempt to bias the observer — This describes a social desirability bias relevant to observational or counseling settings, not a limitation specific to administrative claims data.
In a multiple linear regression model predicting house prices based on square footage and number of bedrooms, the coefficient for square footage is 50. What does this coefficient represent?
- Each additional square foot increases the predicted house price by 50 units
- The number of bedrooms always be 50 units
- The price is always 50
Explanation
Explanation:
Correct Answer: (A) Each additional square foot increases the predicted house price by 50 units
In multiple linear regression, a coefficient represents the expected change in the dependent variable (house price) for each one-unit increase in the independent variable (square footage), while holding all other variables constant. A coefficient of 50 for square footage means that for every additional square foot, the predicted house price increases by 50 units.
B. The number of bedrooms always be 50 units — The coefficient for square footage has no relationship to the number of bedrooms variable. C. The price is always 50 — A coefficient does not represent a fixed price; it represents the rate of change in the outcome per unit increase in the predictor.
A population-based case-control study:
- Cases and controls are drawn from a well-defined cohort population, which is followed over time to observe the occurrence of the outcome of interest
- Is a design where cases and controls are recruited from hospital patients or individuals attending clinical facilities
- Aims to investigate the association between exposure to certain risk factors and the development of a particular disease or outcome within a defined population
- All of the above
Explanation
Correct Answer: C) Aims to investigate the association between exposure to certain risk factors and the development of a particular disease or outcome within a defined population
A population-based case-control study specifically aims to investigate the association between exposure to risk factors and the development of a disease or outcome within a clearly defined general population. Option A describes a cohort study design, not a case-control study — cohort studies follow participants forward over time, whereas case-control studies work backward from outcome to exposure. Option B describes a hospital-based or facility-based case-control study, which is a different design where participants are recruited from clinical settings rather than the general population. Since not all options are correct, D is incorrect.
Which of these statistical tests would be the most appropriate to compare the mean A1C levels between an exercise group and a usual care group in a study?
- Independent t-test
- Chi-Square Test
- Survival Analysis
- Kruskal-Wallis test
Explanation
Explanation:
Correct Answer: (A) Independent t-test
An independent t-test is the most appropriate test for comparing the means of a continuous variable (A1C levels) between two independent groups. A1C is a continuous numerical variable and there are exactly two groups being compared, making the independent t-test the correct choice.
B. Chi-Square Test — Used for comparing categorical data, not continuous variables like A1C levels. C. Survival Analysis — Used to analyze time-to-event data such as time to death or disease recurrence, not for comparing means. D. Kruskal-Wallis test — A non-parametric alternative used when comparing three or more groups or when data is not normally distributed. With two groups and continuous data, the independent t-test is preferred.
If a sample has 12 observations, the degrees of freedom (df) used in a t-test is:
- 0
- 11
- 1
- 10
Explanation
Correct Answer: B) 11
In a one-sample t-test, the degrees of freedom is calculated as n − 1, where n is the number of observations in the sample. With 12 observations, the degrees of freedom = 12 − 1 = 11. The concept of subtracting 1 reflects the fact that once the mean is calculated from the sample, only n − 1 values are free to vary independently — the last value is constrained by the requirement that all values sum to the calculated mean. Degrees of freedom are used to determine the appropriate t-distribution for hypothesis testing and critical value lookup.
A study compares the current prevalence of Vitamin D deficiency in pharmacists living in Chicago versus those living in Miami during the month of January, 2026. What is a primary limitation of this study design?
- It is too expensive to conduct
- It is unethical to measure Vitamin D levels
- It takes too many years to get the results
- It cannot establish a causal relationship or sequence of events
Explanation
Correct Answer: D) It cannot establish a causal relationship or sequence of events
This study is a cross-sectional study because it measures the prevalence of Vitamin D deficiency at a single point in time (January 2026) across two different populations. The primary limitation of cross-sectional studies is that they capture a snapshot in time, making it impossible to determine the temporal sequence of events — that is, whether the exposure (living location/sunlight exposure) preceded the outcome (Vitamin D deficiency) or vice versa.
Without establishing temporal sequence, causal relationships cannot be determined. The study is not inherently expensive or unethical, and cross-sectional studies are actually one of the fastest study designs to complete, not requiring years of follow-up.
What kind of data is commonly used in conducting interventions?
- All four data types
- Community and administrative outcome data
- Expert opinion
- Single patient experiences
Explanation
Explanation:
Correct Answer: (B) Community and administrative outcome data
Interventional research commonly relies on community and administrative outcome data because these data types provide measurable, population-level information that can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention across groups. This includes data from health records, registries, and administrative databases.
A. All four data types — While multiple data types may be used in research broadly, interventions most commonly and systematically rely on community and administrative outcome data. C. Expert opinion — This represents the lowest level of evidence and is not the primary data type used in conducting interventions. D. Single patient experiences — Individual patient experiences are useful for qualitative research and case studies but are not the standard data type used in interventional research.
What does the PICOTS framework represent in the context of systematic reviews?
- Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Time, and Numbers
- Population, Intervention, Control, Observation, Treatment, and Type
- Publication, Intervention, Control, Observation, Outcome, Type, and Summary
- Procedure, Intervention, Consistency, Outcome, Type, and Summary
Explanation
Explanation:
Correct Answer: (A) Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Time, and Numbers
The PICOTS framework is a structured tool used in systematic reviews and evidence-based practice to formulate clinical questions and guide literature searches. It stands for Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Time, and Setting (or Numbers in some versions), helping researchers clearly define the scope and focus of their review.
B, C, D — These options incorrectly define the components of the PICOTS framework and do not reflect the standard terminology used in evidence-based research methodology.
If a cohort study reports a Relative Risk (RR) of 1.0 regarding a new drug and the risk of a headache, how should the pharmacist interpret this result?
- The drug significantly decreases the risk of headaches
- The drug significantly increases the risk of headaches
- There is no difference in the risk of headaches between the two groups
- The study results are invalid
Explanation
Correct Answer: C) There is no difference in the risk of headaches between the two groups
A Relative Risk (RR) of 1.0 means the risk of the outcome (headache) is exactly the same in the exposed group (those taking the drug) as in the unexposed group (those not taking the drug). This indicates no association between the drug and the risk of headaches. An RR greater than 1.0 would suggest increased risk, while an RR less than 1.0 would suggest a protective effect or decreased risk. An RR of exactly 1.0 is a valid and meaningful result — it does not indicate that the study is invalid.
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