NURS 346 ALL SP26 Quiz 4 AA University of Maryland School of Nursing
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Free NURS 346 ALL SP26 Quiz 4 AA University of Maryland School of Nursing Questions
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Conducting a power analysis before starting
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Using restrictive inclusion/exclusion criteria
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Recruiting a diverse sample of participants
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Randomly assigning participants to groups
Explanation
Correct Answer: (C) Recruiting a diverse sample of participants External validity refers to the ability to generalize findings to other populations, settings, and contexts. Recruiting a diverse sample that is representative of different ages, genders, ethnicities, and backgrounds ensures that the study findings are applicable to a broader population, directly strengthening external validity.
Why Other Options are Incorrect:
- A. Conducting a power analysis determines the adequate sample size needed to detect a true effect. This improves statistical power and reduces Type II errors, but does not directly address generalizability to other populations.
- B. Restrictive inclusion/exclusion criteria narrows the sample, making it more homogeneous and actually weakening external validity by limiting the population to which results can be generalized.
- D. Randomly assigning participants to groups is a strategy to reduce bias and strengthen internal validity by ensuring equivalent groups — it does not improve the generalizability of findings to outside populations.
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Content validity
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Treatment fidelity
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External validity
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Power analysis
Explanation
Correct Answer: (C) External validity External validity refers to the ability to generalize study findings to other populations, settings, and contexts. A sample that is 92% white women is not representative of the diverse general population. This lack of diversity severely limits the researchers' ability to generalize findings about fish oil and stroke to men, other racial and ethnic groups, and broader populations.
Why Other Options are Incorrect:
- A. Content validity refers to whether a measurement tool or instrument adequately covers the full scope of the concept being measured. It is not relevant to sample demographics.
- B. Treatment fidelity refers to the degree to which an intervention is implemented as intended and consistently across the study. It is unrelated to the demographic composition of the sample.
- D. Power analysis relates to the statistical adequacy of the sample size to detect a true effect. While sample diversity is an issue, the described problem is specifically about generalizability, not statistical power.
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Set a lower p value
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Use multiple hypotheses
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Use random sampling
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Set a lower alpha
Explanation
Correct Answer: (D) Set a lower alpha A Type I error is a false positive — concluding that an effect exists when it does not. The alpha level is the threshold for statistical significance and directly controls the probability of committing a Type I error. Setting a lower alpha (e.g., from 0.05 to 0.01) means the researcher requires stronger evidence before rejecting the null hypothesis, thereby reducing the risk of a false positive finding.
Why Other Options are Incorrect:
A. The p value is calculated from the data and cannot be set by the researcher — only the alpha (significance threshold) is set in advance. This option confuses p value with alpha.
B. Using multiple hypotheses actually increases the risk of Type I error, as testing multiple comparisons increases the probability that at least one result will appear significant by chance (multiple comparisons problem).
C. Random sampling improves external validity and representativeness of the sample. While valuable, it does not directly control the probability of a Type I error.
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Balance was accurately measured by the tool used in the study.
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Swimming, not something else, was what improved balance.
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Experts examined the tool used and determined it was appropriate.
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The findings can be generalized to patients in other age groups.
Explanation
Correct Answer: (B) Swimming, not something else, was what improved balance. Internal validity refers to the degree to which a study can establish a true cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables, ruling out alternative explanations. In this study, internal validity means that swimming itself — and not confounding variables such as motivation, baseline fitness, or other activities — was responsible for the improved balance scores.
Why Other Options are Incorrect:
- A. Accurately measuring balance with the tool describes instrument reliability and construct validity — not internal validity.
- C. Experts examining and approving the tool describes content validity, which relates to whether the measurement instrument is appropriate — not internal validity.
- D. Generalizing findings to other age groups describes external validity — the ability to apply results beyond the study population — not internal validity.
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Maturation
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History
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Sample diversity
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Selection threat
Explanation
Correct Answer: (B) History History as a threat to internal validity refers to external events occurring during the study that are unrelated to the intervention but may influence the outcome. The pandemic is a major historical event that independently increased nurse burnout through elevated workload, moral distress, and increased patient mortality — making it impossible to attribute changes in burnout solely to the study variables.
Why Other Options are Incorrect:
- A. Maturation refers to changes occurring within participants due to natural passage of time (e.g., aging, fatigue). While nurses may experience fatigue over time, the pandemic is a discrete external event — not a natural developmental process.
- C. Sample diversity relates to external validity and the ability to generalize findings across populations. It does not threaten the internal causal relationship between variables.
- D. Selection threat involves pre-existing differences between groups. Since the pandemic affected all participants equally, this is not a selection issue but rather an uncontrolled external historical event.
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Selection threat
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Temporal ambiguity
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Maturation
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History
Explanation
Correct Answer: (C) Maturation Maturation is the biggest threat to internal validity in this study. Over a 6-month period, preschool children naturally develop social skills simply due to normal growth and developmental progression — regardless of any intervention. Because there is no control group, it is impossible to determine whether improvements in social skills resulted from the intervention or from the children's natural maturation over time.
Why Other Options are Incorrect:
- A. Selection threat occurs when there are pre-existing differences between groups being compared. Since this is a single-group design with no comparison group, selection threat is not the primary concern.
- B. Temporal ambiguity refers to uncertainty about whether the cause preceded the effect. In a pretest/posttest design, the temporal sequence is clear — the intervention precedes the outcome measurement.
- D. History refers to external events occurring during the study that could affect outcomes. While possible, maturation is a far greater and more predictable threat given the young age of the participants and the 6-month timeframe.
- A biological explanation exists that supports the relationship between the IV and DV.
- They controlled for confounders and no other variable can explain the change in outcome.
- They are confident that the intervention was given before a change in the outcome occurred.
- They are unsure if the change in outcome occurred before or after the intervention was given.
Explanation
Correct Answer: (D) They are unsure if the change in outcome occurred before or after the intervention was given. One of the fundamental requirements for establishing causation is temporal precedence — the cause must precede the effect. If researchers are uncertain about the temporal sequence (whether the outcome changed before or after the intervention), they cannot confidently establish that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable, making causal inference impossible.
Why Other Options are Incorrect:
- A. A biological explanation supporting the relationship between the IV and DV actually strengthens the case for causal inference by providing a plausible mechanism through which the cause produces the effect.
- B. Controlling for confounders and eliminating alternative explanations supports causal inference by ruling out competing variables that could explain the outcome — this is a condition that favors, not hinders, causation claims.
- C. Confidence that the intervention preceded the outcome change satisfies the temporal precedence criterion for causation, strengthening rather than weakening the ability to make a causal inference.
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Convenience sampling to ensure an adequate sample size
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Objective tools for measurement that reduce potential bias
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Rigorous methods like use of power analysis or blinding
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Findings that show a statistically significant relationship
Explanation
Correct Answers: (B) Objective tools for measurement that reduce potential bias, (C) Rigorous methods like use of power analysis or blinding
Objective measurement tools reduce measurement bias and increase the accuracy and reliability of data collection. Using validated, standardized instruments rather than subjective assessments strengthens the credibility of the findings.
Rigorous methods such as power analysis and blinding directly strengthen study credibility. Power analysis ensures the sample is adequate to detect true effects, while blinding prevents participants and/or researchers from knowing group assignments, minimizing performance and detection bias.
Why Other Options are Incorrect:
- A. Convenience sampling introduces selection bias and limits representativeness. While it may help reach an adequate sample size, it weakens the credibility and generalizability of findings rather than strengthening them.
- D. Statistical significance alone does not indicate credibility or accuracy. A finding can be statistically significant but have no clinical meaning, or result from a poorly designed study. Statistical significance is one piece of evidence but does not on its own confirm study quality.
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Mortality
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Selection
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History
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Maturation
Explanation
Correct Answer: (B) Selection Selection threat occurs when there are pre-existing differences between groups that are not due to random assignment. By assigning participants based on which campus they attend rather than through random assignment, the two groups may differ systematically in characteristics such as demographics, socioeconomic status, access to resources, or baseline health — making it impossible to attribute outcome differences solely to the intervention.
Why Other Options are Incorrect:
A. Mortality threat refers to differential dropout rates between groups during the study. There is no information provided suggesting participants are dropping out at different rates.
C. History threat involves external events occurring during the study that affect outcomes. Campus assignment does not involve an external event influencing the dependent variable.
D. Maturation refers to natural changes within participants over time due to aging or development. This is unrelated to how participants are assigned to groups.
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Discuss the limitations of the study if the editor of the publishing journal requires it.
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Acknowledge only the limitations that were beyond the control of the researchers.
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Discuss limitations of the study because no study is perfectly designed or implemented.
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Refrain from mentioning any limitations of the study because that may bias readers' views.
Explanation
Correct Answer: (C) Discuss limitations of the study because no study is perfectly designed or implemented. Discussing limitations is a fundamental component of research integrity and transparency. No study is without flaws in design, sampling, measurement, or implementation. Openly acknowledging limitations allows readers to critically evaluate the findings, understand the scope of applicability, and identify areas for future research.
Why Other Options are Incorrect:
- A. Limitations should be discussed routinely and proactively as a standard research practice — not only when required by a journal editor. Ethical research demands transparency regardless of external requirements.
- B. Researchers should acknowledge all significant limitations — including those within their control such as sampling choices, study design decisions, and measurement tools — not only those beyond their control.
- D. Omitting limitations is a form of research dishonesty that misleads readers and undermines the credibility of the findings. Transparency about limitations actually strengthens the integrity of the research.
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