PSYCH 111: Introduction to Psychology: Week 9: Chapter 6 Quizzes: Learning

Correct Answer:

C. Chimps switch from dipping to sucking after observing others use the more effective method

Explanation:

Observational learning occurs when individuals change their behavior after watching others and imitating what they see. In the chimpanzee study, the “dippers” learned a more efficient strategy—sucking through the straw—after watching the “suckers.” No direct reinforcement was required; instead, learning occurred through modeling. This highlights how both humans and animals can adapt behaviors by observing and imitating others’ successes.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

A. Chimps receive food only after pressing a lever a certain number of times

This describes operant conditioning with a fixed-ratio schedule, not observational learning, since behavior is shaped by reinforcement, not imitation.

B. Chimps continue dipping straws in juice even after watching others suck directly

This shows no observational learning because behavior does not change based on modeling.

D. Chimps are reinforced with food at fixed time intervals regardless of behavior

This reflects a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule, not observational learning, since reinforcement is based on time rather than imitating others.

Correct Answer:

B. Pavlov’s work showed reflexes could be conditioned in dogs, and Watson extended this idea to conditioning human emotions

Explanation:

Ivan Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs, showing that reflexive responses (like salivation) could be conditioned by pairing a neutral stimulus with food. John B. Watson applied these principles to humans, arguing that emotions such as fear could also be conditioned. His famous “Little Albert” experiment illustrated that fear of animals could be learned by pairing them with loud, frightening sounds. Watson’s extension of Pavlov’s work supported his view that human behavior is largely the result of conditioned responses.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

A. Pavlov conditioned human emotions, while Watson conditioned animal reflexes

This reverses the roles—Pavlov worked with dogs’ reflexes, not human emotions.

C. Pavlov rejected conditioning, while Watson used it exclusively to study behavior

Pavlov discovered classical conditioning, so he did not reject it.

D. Pavlov focused on operant conditioning, while Watson focused on classical conditioning

Pavlov studied classical conditioning, not operant conditioning, and Watson extended that to human behavior.

Correct Answer:

A. Live, verbal, and symbolic models that show, explain, or represent behaviors

Explanation:

Albert Bandura identified three types of models in observational learning. A live model directly demonstrates behavior, such as standing on a surfboard. A verbal instructional model explains the behavior without performing it, such as a coach giving directions. A symbolic model represents behavior through media, including books, movies, or television. These forms of modeling show how people learn not just by doing but also by observing, listening, and interpreting symbolic representations.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

B. Primary, secondary, and tertiary models that depend on reinforcement schedules

This option incorrectly uses reinforcement terminology. Bandura’s models are not categorized this way.

C. Fixed, variable, and interval models that control reinforcement timing

These terms apply to reinforcement schedules in operant conditioning, not to modeling in observational learning.

D. Immediate, delayed, and continuous models that determine learning speed

This option incorrectly frames models in terms of timing. Bandura’s categories are based on how behavior is demonstrated, not the speed of learning.

Correct Answer:

B. A reinforcer with no inherent value that gains power only when linked to a primary reinforcer

Explanation:

A secondary reinforcer, also called a conditioned reinforcer, does not satisfy a biological need on its own but becomes reinforcing because it is associated with a primary reinforcer. Examples include money, praise, tokens, or stickers on a behavior chart. Money has no value by itself; its power comes from the fact that it can be exchanged for food, shelter, or other desirable items. Similarly, praise and stickers become reinforcing when they are linked with affection, recognition, or rewards. This shows how social and symbolic reinforcers can shape behavior through learned associations.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

A. A reinforcer that satisfies innate biological needs such as food, water, and shelter

This describes primary reinforcers, not secondary. Primary reinforcers are inherently rewarding because they address survival needs.

C. A reinforcer that weakens behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus

This describes negative punishment, not reinforcement. Reinforcers always strengthen behavior, whereas punishment decreases it.

D. A reinforcer that increases behavior by adding a direct physical pleasure

This refers to primary reinforcers such as touch, sex, or food, which provide immediate biological satisfaction, not learned secondary reinforcers.

Correct Answer:

B. Positive means adding something, negative means taking something away, reinforcement increases behavior, and punishment decreases behavior

Explanation:

In operant conditioning, positive does not mean “good,” and negative does not mean “bad.” Instead, positive means that something is added to the situation, while negative means that something is removed. Reinforcement always increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, while punishment always decreases the likelihood of a behavior. This framework produces four possible outcomes: positive reinforcement (adding a reward), negative reinforcement (removing something unpleasant), positive punishment (adding an unpleasant stimulus), and negative punishment (removing something pleasant).

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

A. Positive means good, negative means bad, reinforcement decreases behavior, and punishment increases behavior

This reverses the definitions and confuses the effects of reinforcement and punishment.

C. Positive means rewarding behavior, negative means ignoring behavior, reinforcement always weakens behavior, and punishment always strengthens behavior

This is incorrect because reinforcement strengthens behavior, and punishment weakens it.

D. Positive and negative have no meaning in operant conditioning; only reinforcement matters

Both positive and negative reinforcement and punishment are essential distinctions in operant conditioning.

Correct Answer:

B. Extinction

Explanation:

Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), leading to a gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response (CR). For example, if Pavlov’s bell (CS) is rung but food (UCS) is no longer presented, the dog will eventually stop salivating (CR) to the bell. Extinction does not erase learning; it simply suppresses the conditioned response.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

A. Acquisition

Acquisition is the initial learning stage where the CS and UCS are paired to form an association.

C. Generalization

Generalization occurs when stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.

D. Spontaneous recovery

Spontaneous recovery is when a previously extinguished conditioned response reappears after a pause, not the process of its decline.

Correct Answer:

B. Occurs as a result of experience

Explanation:

Learning is the process through which experience leads to a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge. Unlike innate behaviors such as reflexes or instincts, learned behaviors develop through interaction with the environment and practice. For example, a person may learn to play an instrument, solve math problems, or develop new habits because of repeated exposure and reinforcement. This definition emphasizes experience as the driving force of learning rather than genetic programming.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

A. Is innate

Innate behaviors are biologically hardwired, such as reflexes and instincts, and do not require experience. They differ from learning.

C. Is found only in humans

Learning occurs in many species, not just humans. Animals also learn through conditioning, observation, and trial-and-error.

D. Occurs by observing others

This describes observational learning, which is one form of learning, but it is not the general definition of learning itself.

Correct Answer:

B. Rats form cognitive maps of mazes even without immediate reinforcement

Explanation:

Edward C. Tolman demonstrated through his maze experiments that rats developed mental representations, or “cognitive maps,” of their environments. Even without immediate reinforcement, they were able to later use this knowledge when rewards were introduced. This finding contradicted strict behaviorists like Watson and Skinner, who argued that reinforcement had to be immediate for learning to occur. Tolman’s work introduced the idea that cognitive processes—such as expectation and mental mapping—play a crucial role in learning.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

A. Rats in a maze only learn when they receive immediate food rewards

This aligns with Skinner’s radical behaviorism, not Tolman’s findings. Tolman showed rats could learn without immediate reinforcement.

C. Behavior can only be explained by reinforcement schedules and not by cognition

This reflects strict behaviorism, not Tolman’s perspective. Tolman argued cognition is essential in explaining learning.

D. Learning occurs only when reinforcement is paired with a specific behavior

This statement reflects classical or operant conditioning principles but does not account for Tolman’s discovery of latent learning and cognitive mapping.

Correct Answer:

C. Because it breaks behaviors into small steps and reinforces closer approximations until the final behavior is achieved

Explanation:

Shaping is essential for teaching complex behaviors that are unlikely to occur naturally. The process involves reinforcing small steps (successive approximations) that gradually resemble the target behavior. At first, any behavior resembling the goal is reinforced. Then reinforcement shifts to responses that come closer and closer until only the desired behavior is rewarded. This step-by-step method makes it possible to train animals and humans to perform complex actions, such as learning to play an instrument or teaching a dog to fetch.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

A. Because it punishes incorrect responses until the organism learns the exact desired behavior

Shaping uses reinforcement, not punishment, to guide learning.

B. Because it reinforces only the final target behavior, ignoring all earlier approximations

If only the final behavior were reinforced, the organism would not know the steps to get there.

D. Because it relies on observational learning rather than reinforcement to establish behavior

Shaping is a reinforcement-based technique, not an observational learning process.