PSYCH 111: Introduction to Psychology Final Exam

The Correct Answer is:

B. Structuralism

Structuralism, founded by Wilhelm Wundt and later developed by Edward Titchener, was an early psychological approach that aimed to analyze the structure of the mind by breaking down mental processes into their most basic components, such as sensations, perceptions, and emotions. Researchers used a method called introspection to examine conscious experiences. This approach laid the foundation for experimental psychology, although it was later replaced by other schools like functionalism and behaviorism.

Why the other options are incorrect:

Functionalism

This is incorrect because functionalism, led by William James, focused on understanding the purpose of mental processes rather than breaking them down into smaller components. It emphasized how the mind adapts to the environment and helps humans function effectively, shifting the focus away from structure and toward practical applications.

Behaviorism

This is incorrect because behaviorism, founded by John B. Watson and expanded by B.F. Skinner, rejected introspection and focused only on observable behaviors. Behaviorists believed psychology should study measurable actions rather than internal mental processes, making it fundamentally different from structuralism’s focus on consciousness and introspection.

Humanism

This is incorrect because humanism, led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasized individual potential, personal growth, and self-actualization. Unlike structuralism, humanism focuses on understanding the whole person and their subjective experiences rather than dissecting mental processes into smaller elements or using introspection as a primary method.

Correct Answer:

A. There is a relationship between the two variables

Explanation

A correlation means that two variables are related in some way — as one variable changes, the other tends to change as well. Correlations can be positive (both variables increase together), negative (one increases while the other decreases), or zero (no relationship). However, correlation does not imply causation. For example, ice cream sales and drowning rates both rise in the summer, but one does not cause the other; they are related due to a third factor — temperature.

Why Other Options Are Wrong

B. The two variables have been manipulated together

Manipulation of variables occurs in experiments, not in correlational studies. Correlation simply measures relationships, not controlled manipulation.

C. One variable causes the other

Correlation does not indicate causation. While two variables may be related, the cause could be due to a third factor or coincidence. Establishing causation requires experimental research.

D. The two variables exist in a feedback loop

A feedback loop involves one variable directly influencing the other in a continuous cycle, which is not necessarily implied by a correlation. Correlation only measures the strength and direction of a relationship, not its mechanism.

The Correct Answer is:

A. How we interact with and relate to others

Social psychology studies how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts. It examines topics like prejudice, attraction, conflict resolution, and the differences between how we explain our own behavior versus others’. Social psychologists also explore how being around others affects decision-making, attitudes, and patterns of thinking, making it a key branch of psychology focused on understanding social influences on human behavior.

Why the other options are incorrect:

Patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make individuals unique

This is incorrect because understanding unique, stable traits is the focus of personality psychology, not social psychology, which emphasizes interactions and relationships.

Physical and cognitive development throughout the lifespan

This is incorrect because studying biological, emotional, and intellectual growth is the domain of developmental psychology, not social psychology.

The influence of unconscious drives on personality

This is incorrect because unconscious motives and internal conflicts are primarily studied in psychoanalytic psychology, particularly Freud’s theories, rather than in social psychology.

The Correct Answer is:

B. The scientific study of development across the lifespan, including physical maturation

Developmental psychology focuses on understanding how people grow, change, and adapt throughout their lives. It examines physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development from infancy to late adulthood. Developmental psychologists study areas like language acquisition, motor skills, identity formation, and aging, as well as how genetics and environment interact to influence growth.

Why the other options are incorrect:

The study of how thoughts and memories influence actions

This is incorrect because that focus belongs to cognitive psychology, not developmental psychology.

The analysis of how culture shapes behavior and personality

This is incorrect because this describes the sociocultural perspective, whereas developmental psychology studies changes across the human lifespan rather than primarily cultural influences.

The treatment of psychological disorders through behavioral techniques

This is incorrect because treating mental disorders using behavioral strategies relates to behavior therapy, not developmental psychology, which focuses on studying patterns of growth and change rather than treatment methods.

Correct Answer:

B. Apply two rules to a string of digits to complete the task

Explanation

In the Wagner sleep insight study, participants were explicitly instructed to apply two specific rules to a string of digits to complete a problem-solving task. The study aimed to investigate the connection between sleep, insight, and cognitive performance. Researchers found that participants who slept before attempting the task were more likely to discover the hidden rule needed to solve the problems effectively, demonstrating how sleep enhances insight, memory consolidation, and problem-solving abilities.

Why Other Options Are Wrong

A. Memorize a random sequence of letters to test recall

This is incorrect because the study focused on numerical problem-solving, not on memorizing letters. The main task involved applying rules to digit strings, not testing memory recall directly.

C. Count backward from 1,000 to measure cognitive fatigue

This does not describe the Wagner study. Counting backward is sometimes used in attention and focus experiments, but Wagner’s research was about insight development, not mental endurance.

D. Solve arithmetic problems without any given instructions

This is incorrect because participants were given explicit instructions on which two rules to apply. The experiment depended on these directions to test whether sleep improved participants’ ability to uncover the hidden shortcut rule.

The Correct Answer is:

C. Functionalism

Functionalism, pioneered by William James, focused on understanding the purpose of mental processes and how they enable humans to adapt, survive, and thrive in their environment. Unlike structuralism, which analyzed mental elements, functionalism emphasized the practical functions of consciousness and behavior. It laid the groundwork for applied psychology, influencing modern fields like educational, developmental, and evolutionary psychology by highlighting the adaptive role of thought and action.

Why the other options are incorrect:

Psychoanalysis

This is incorrect because psychoanalysis, developed by Sigmund Freud, focuses on the unconscious mind, repressed memories, and unresolved childhood conflicts rather than the adaptive functions of mental processes. While influential, it does not address how consciousness helps individuals adjust to their surroundings.

Structuralism

This is incorrect because structuralism, founded by Wilhelm Wundt and advanced by Edward Titchener, focused on breaking down mental processes into basic components using introspection. Unlike functionalism, it did not emphasize the practical purpose of thought or its role in adaptation to the environment.

Humanism

This is incorrect because humanism, led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, centers on personal growth, self-actualization, and fulfilling human potential. While it values conscious experience, its focus is on individual needs and motivation, not on understanding how mental processes function to aid survival or environmental adaptation.

The Correct Answer is:

A. Humanistic psychology

Humanistic psychology, led by theorists like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, focuses on personal growth, self-awareness, free will, and the drive toward self-actualization—reaching one’s fullest potential. Unlike other perspectives, it views individuals as inherently good and capable of making conscious choices to improve their lives. Humanistic psychology emphasizes empathy, authenticity, and understanding subjective experiences rather than reducing behavior to unconscious drives or external conditioning.

Why the other options are incorrect:

Behaviorism

This is incorrect because behaviorism, developed by John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, focuses on observable behaviors and how they are shaped by rewards, punishments, and environmental influences. It does not emphasize free will or personal growth but instead relies on conditioning and measurable behavioral responses.

Cognitive psychology

This is incorrect because cognitive psychology studies mental processes like memory, perception, decision-making, and problem-solving. While it examines how people think, it does not focus on free will or self-actualization. Cognitive psychology is more concerned with understanding how information is processed rather than fostering personal growth.

Psychoanalysis

This is incorrect because psychoanalysis, founded by Sigmund Freud, emphasizes unconscious motives, repressed conflicts, and childhood experiences as key influences on behavior. While it explores personal development, it does not prioritize free will or human potential in the way humanistic psychology does.

The Correct Answer is:

D. Adrenal glands

Cortisol, commonly known as the “stress hormone,” is released by the adrenal glands during stressful situations. When the brain perceives stress, the hypothalamus activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, signaling the adrenal glands to release cortisol. This hormone helps the body mobilize energy, regulate blood sugar, and prepare for the “fight-or-flight” response. However, prolonged cortisol elevation can weaken the immune system and negatively impact health.

Why the other options are incorrect:

A. Sympathetic nervous system

This is incorrect because the sympathetic nervous system activates the fight-or-flight response by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness, but it does not directly release cortisol. Hormonal release occurs through the adrenal glands.

B. Hypothalamus

This is incorrect because the hypothalamus initiates the stress response by releasing corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which signals the pituitary gland. However, it does not directly secrete cortisol into the bloodstream.

C. Pituitary gland

This is incorrect because the pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol. While it plays a crucial regulatory role, it is not the source of cortisol itself.

The Correct Answer is:

A. Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis, founded by Sigmund Freud, focuses on exploring the unconscious mind to uncover hidden conflicts, desires, and repressed memories that influence behavior. Techniques such as free association (encouraging clients to say whatever comes to mind) and dream analysis are used to gain insight into unresolved issues and unconscious processes. The goal is to bring these hidden thoughts to awareness, allowing for better emotional understanding and behavioral change.

Why the other options are incorrect:

Humanistic therapy

This is incorrect because humanistic therapy, developed by psychologists like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasizes personal growth, self-awareness, and unconditional positive regard. It focuses on present experiences rather than analyzing unconscious desires or dreams.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy

This is incorrect because CBT focuses on identifying and changing negative thought patterns and behaviors. It uses structured, goal-oriented techniques rather than exploring unconscious motivations or analyzing dreams.

Exposure therapy

This is incorrect because exposure therapy is a behavioral treatment used to reduce fears and phobias by gradually exposing individuals to anxiety-provoking situations. It does not involve free association or dream interpretation, making it fundamentally different from psychoanalysis.