PSYCH 111: Introduction to Psychology Final Exam

The Correct Answer is:

C. At least 2 years

For a diagnosis of PDD, symptoms must last most of the day, nearly every day, for at least two years. These symptoms include low mood, fatigue, poor concentration, and decreased pleasure in daily activities. Although less severe than major depressive episodes, the long-lasting nature of PDD makes it highly disruptive to personal, social, and occupational functioning.

Why the other options are incorrect:

A. At least 6 months – This duration is too short for PDD diagnosis.

B. At least 1 year – While longer than typical sadness, it still does not meet the two-year minimum.

D. At least 5 years – This overstates the required duration for diagnosis.

The Correct Answer is:

A. Practicing gratitude and mindfulness

Practicing gratitude and mindfulness is one of the most effective strategies for boosting happiness and reducing stress. Gratitude fosters a positive outlook by focusing on what’s going well, while mindfulness helps individuals stay present and manage negative thoughts. Together, these practices lower cortisol levels, improve emotional regulation, enhance relationships, and promote overall life satisfaction, making them powerful tools for mental and physical well-being.

Why the other options are incorrect:

Ignoring emotions and suppressing feelings

This is incorrect because avoiding emotions can increase stress and anxiety over time. Unaddressed feelings often resurface, leading to emotional exhaustion and reduced well-being. Healthy coping involves acknowledging and processing emotions rather than ignoring them.

Relying only on material rewards

This is incorrect because depending solely on material possessions or financial gain for happiness often leads to short-term satisfaction but long-term emptiness. Research shows that experiences, relationships, and personal growth contribute far more to sustainable happiness than material wealth.

Avoiding all social interactions

This is incorrect because social isolation is strongly linked to increased stress, loneliness, and lower life satisfaction. Humans are inherently social beings, and maintaining healthy connections is critical for emotional support, happiness, and resilience against stress.

The Correct Answer is:

B. A group of disorders in which mania is the defining feature, involving extreme elation, agitation, and impulsive behavior

Bipolar and related disorders are characterized by episodes of mania, a state of heightened mood, energy, and activity levels. During manic episodes, individuals may become extremely talkative, engage in risky or reckless behaviors, and attempt to manage multiple tasks at once. Bipolar disorder is the most recognized condition in this category and often includes alternating periods of mania and depression, significantly impacting daily life and functioning.

Why the other options are incorrect:

A. A group of disorders characterized by persistent sadness and lack of interest in activities

This is incorrect because persistent sadness and loss of interest are symptoms of major depressive disorder, not bipolar disorder. Bipolar disorders include periods of extreme elation, which distinguish them from depressive disorders.

C. A condition involving mild mood swings that do not affect daily functioning

This is incorrect because bipolar disorder involves severe mood episodes that can significantly impair relationships, work, and decision-making. Mild mood fluctuations without impairment are not considered bipolar-related disorders.

D. A stress-related disorder triggered only by traumatic events

This is incorrect because bipolar disorder is not caused solely by trauma. While stress can worsen symptoms, bipolar disorders are linked to a combination of genetic, biological, and environmental factors rather than being classified as trauma-specific conditions like PTSD.

The Correct Answer is:

B. Severe depression resistant to other treatments

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is primarily used today to treat severe, treatment-resistant depression, especially when other approaches—such as psychotherapy and medications—have been ineffective. ECT involves delivering controlled electrical currents to the brain to induce a brief seizure, which can rapidly improve mood and relieve symptoms in cases of major depressive disorder. It is also sometimes used for severe bipolar disorder or catatonia under medical supervision.

Why the other options are incorrect:

Mild anxiety disorders

This is incorrect because mild anxiety is typically treated with psychotherapy, lifestyle changes, and medications, not ECT. Using ECT for mild conditions is considered unnecessary and inappropriate.

Phobias

This is incorrect because phobias are better treated with behavioral therapies, such as exposure therapy or cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). ECT is not a recommended treatment for specific phobias or avoidance behaviors.

PTSD

This is incorrect because Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is generally treated using psychotherapy, including trauma-focused CBT and EMDR, and sometimes medications. ECT is not a first-line or standard treatment for PTSD symptoms.

The Correct Answer is:

B. Stress that motivates positive action and growth

Eustress is a type of stress that has a positive effect, motivating individuals to take action, improve performance, and achieve goals. It occurs when challenges are viewed as opportunities rather than threats. Examples include preparing for an exam, starting a new job, or training for a competition. Unlike distress, which harms mental and physical health, eustress enhances focus, resilience, and personal growth.

Why the other options are incorrect:

A harmful response to prolonged stress

This is incorrect because harmful, long-term stress refers to distress, not eustress. Distress can lead to anxiety, depression, and health issues, whereas eustress promotes motivation and personal development.

Complete absence of stress

This is incorrect because eustress does not mean living without stress. Some level of stress can be healthy and necessary for growth, while the total absence of stress may lead to stagnation, boredom, and reduced productivity.

Stress caused by trauma

This is incorrect because stress from trauma, such as accidents or abuse, typically leads to distress and possible psychological conditions like PTSD. Eustress, on the other hand, involves positive challenges that enhance performance rather than causing harm.

The Correct Answer is:

A. Physical exercise

Physical exercise is a highly effective positive coping strategy for managing stress. Regular physical activity reduces cortisol levels, improves blood circulation, boosts mood-enhancing chemicals like endorphins, and promotes better sleep. Exercise also helps release built-up tension, increases energy levels, and strengthens overall mental and physical health, making it one of the most recommended methods for maintaining emotional balance under stress.

Why the other options are incorrect:

Substance abuse

This is incorrect because using drugs or alcohol to cope with stress can lead to addiction, health problems, and worsened emotional instability. While it may provide temporary relief, substance abuse ultimately increases stress levels and damages overall well-being.

Avoiding responsibilities

This is incorrect because ignoring tasks or obligations only delays problems and increases long-term stress. Avoidance can lead to guilt, anxiety, and overwhelming backlogs of work or challenges rather than effectively managing stressful situations.

Overeating

This is incorrect because overeating, especially unhealthy foods, provides short-term comfort but long-term harm. Stress eating can lead to weight gain, poor nutrition, and additional health issues, ultimately worsening stress instead of helping to relieve it.

The Correct Answer is:

B. Sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

The physiological mechanisms of stress involve the activation of two key systems: the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The sympathetic system triggers the “fight-or-flight” response, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy availability. Meanwhile, the HPA axis releases stress hormones like cortisol, helping the body manage prolonged stress. Together, these systems coordinate physical and hormonal responses to stressors.

Why the other options are incorrect:

A. Parasympathetic nervous system and limbic system

This is incorrect because the parasympathetic nervous system primarily calms the body and restores balance after stress, rather than initiating stress responses. While the limbic system is involved in emotional regulation, it does not directly control the physiological activation needed during stress.

C. Somatic nervous system and amygdala

This is incorrect because the somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements and muscle activation, not automatic stress responses. While the amygdala helps detect threats and signals danger, it is not the main driver of physiological changes. The HPA axis and sympathetic system perform this function.

D. Reticular formation and cerebellum

This is incorrect because the reticular formation regulates sleep-wake cycles and basic alertness, while the cerebellum primarily manages motor coordination and balance. Neither plays a central role in activating the hormonal and nervous system changes that occur during stress.

The Correct Answer is:

B. They are characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, along with related behavioral disturbances

Anxiety disorders involve intense, ongoing fear and worry that significantly affect a person’s behavior and daily life. While occasional anxiety is normal, these disorders cause considerable distress and can interfere with work, relationships, and overall well-being. They are among the most common mental health conditions, affecting approximately 25%–30% of the U.S. population at some point during their lifetime, according to Kessler et al. (2005).

Why the other options are incorrect:

A. Anxiety disorders involve brief, mild nervousness that does not interfere with daily functioning

This is incorrect because anxiety disorders are not mild or temporary. They cause persistent and excessive fear that often disrupts everyday activities, unlike ordinary situational nervousness.

C. Anxiety disorders are rare, affecting less than 5% of the U.S. population

This is incorrect because anxiety disorders are common, impacting nearly one-third of Americans during their lifetime. The 25%–30% prevalence rate makes them one of the most widespread mental health conditions.

D. Anxiety disorders occur only in response to extreme traumatic events

This is incorrect because, although trauma can trigger certain disorders like PTSD, anxiety disorders can also arise without extreme trauma. Factors such as genetics, brain chemistry, and environmental stressors contribute to their development.

The Correct Answer is:

B. A harmful pattern of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors causing significant distress or impairment

A psychological disorder is defined as a clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s thoughts, emotions, or behaviors that leads to distress, dysfunction, or impairment in daily life. These disorders may affect relationships, work, and overall well-being. Mental health professionals diagnose psychological disorders based on established criteria, such as those in the DSM-5, considering severity, duration, and the impact on functioning.

Why the other options are incorrect:

Any unusual behavior

This is incorrect because not all unusual behaviors indicate a psychological disorder. A behavior may be uncommon but harmless, such as having a unique hobby or personality trait, which does not necessarily cause distress or impairment.

Temporary stress after a life event

This is incorrect because short-term stress is a normal reaction to challenging situations and does not automatically indicate a disorder. Psychological disorders involve persistent, significant disturbances rather than temporary emotional responses to life changes.

A difference in personality compared to others

This is incorrect because having a unique personality or being different from social norms does not mean someone has a psychological disorder. A diagnosis is based on functional impairment and distress, not simply on being different from the majority.