Critical Thinking: Reason and Evidence (D265)
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Free Critical Thinking: Reason and Evidence (D265) Questions
Which passage best demonstrates the principle of charity
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Shae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round.
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Morgan said, "The new tax levy to support local schools is too expensive." Morgan must think education is unimportant
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Reese said, "The oil industry has contributed to climate change." Reese must believe the oil industry is responsible for every natural disaster that occurs
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Campbell said, "People convicted of theft should not automatically receive harsh prison sentences." Campbell must mean that people who steal should never be punished
Explanation
Correct Answer:
A.) Shae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round.
Explanation:
This passage demonstrates the principle of charity by giving Shae's argument the most reasonable interpretation, suggesting that they mean the earth appears flat from a specific perspective rather than claiming it is literally flat.
Why the other options are wrong:
B.) Morgan said, "The new tax levy to support local schools is too expensive." Morgan must think education is unimportant.
This misinterprets Morgan's statement by assuming an extreme position that isn't directly supported by what they said.
C.) Reese said, "The oil industry has contributed to climate change." Reese must believe the oil industry is responsible for every natural disaster that occurs.
This is an extreme and inaccurate interpretation of Reese's statement. The principle of charity requires a fair understanding, not an exaggerated one.
D.) Campbell said, "People convicted of theft should not automatically receive harsh prison sentences." Campbell must mean that people who steal should never be punished.
This distorts Campbell's statement into an extreme position, failing to accurately represent their argument.
Which of the following is a fallacy of relevance
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The fallacy of hasty generalization
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The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
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The fallacy of anthropomorphism
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The genetic fallacy
Explanation
Correct Answer:
B.) The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
Explanation:
The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof occurs when someone tries to make their case by forcing the opposing party to disprove their argument instead of providing evidence to support their own claim. This is a fallacy of relevance because it avoids addressing the actual issue and improperly shifts the responsibility of proof.
Why the other options are wrong:
A.) The fallacy of hasty generalization: This is a fallacy of weak induction, not of relevance. It occurs when a conclusion is drawn from a sample that is too small or not representative. It doesn't involve a shift in the focus of the argument.
C.) The fallacy of anthropomorphism: This fallacy involves attributing human characteristics or behaviors to non-human entities. It is a form of logical error but is not categorized as a fallacy of relevance.
D.) The genetic fallacy: This fallacy occurs when a claim is accepted or rejected based on its origin rather than its merit. While this is an error in reasoning, it is a fallacy of irrelevance, but it's more specifically about the source of the claim rather than the argument itself.
If the computer is not fixed, then the company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity. Which of the following breaks down the complex proposition above into the simple propositions
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If the computer is not fixed, then the company needs to buy a new one. The company will not be able to keep up productivity.
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The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be able to keep up productivity.
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The computer is not fixed. The company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity.
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The company does not have enough computers.
Explanation
Correct answer:
C. The computer is not fixed. The company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity.
Explanation:
This option accurately breaks down the complex proposition into its simpler components. The original statement is a conditional proposition ("If the computer is not fixed..."), followed by a disjunction ("either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity"). Option C captures both the condition and the disjunction properly.
Why the other options are wrong:
A. This option incorrectly separates the two outcomes as independent statements, whereas the original proposition presents a disjunction as a consequence of the computer not being fixed.
B. This option is incorrect because it implies the computer is not fixed and also presents the two possible outcomes as independent, missing the conditional relationship.
D. This statement is irrelevant and doesn't relate to the given complex proposition.
Which statement about how to respond to bias is correct
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Difernt forms of bias are best responded to in different ways, depending on how they impact a person
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Since humans are bound to be influenced by bias in everything they do, there is no point in trying to respond to bias
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Humans are not influenced by bias
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All different forms of bias can be responded to in the same way: by putting extra weight on any conclusion that does not seem immediately plausible.
Explanation
Correct Answer:
A.) Different forms of bias are best responded to in different ways, depending on how they impact a person.
Explanation:
Different types of biases—such as availability bias, confirmation bias, and anchoring bias—require different strategies for mitigation. For example, availability bias can be addressed by seeking diverse examples, while confirmation bias can be addressed by actively considering opposing viewpoints.
Why the other options are wrong:
B.) Since humans are bound to be influenced by bias in everything they do, there is no point in trying to respond to bias:
This statement is incorrect; it is crucial to recognize and address biases to make more objective decisions.
C.) Humans are not influenced by bias:
This is false; humans are highly influenced by cognitive biases, which affect judgment and decision-making.
D.) All different forms of bias can be responded to in the same way: by putting extra weight on any conclusion that does not seem immediately plausible:
This is a flawed approach. Each bias requires a specific response to reduce its impact, rather than just questioning conclusions that seem implausible.
Which of the following is most likely to be most impacted by cognitive bias
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A social media post from a nonexpert concerning a controversial topic
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A peer-reviewed academic journal
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A newspaper article about a recent baseball game
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A history textbook written by a reputable historian
Explanation
Correct Answer:
A.) A social media post from a nonexpert concerning a controversial topic
Explanation:
Social media posts by non-experts are more likely to be impacted by cognitive bias, as individuals may rely on personal experiences, emotions, or selective exposure to information when discussing controversial topics. Cognitive biases such as confirmation bias, anchoring bias, and the availability heuristic are often prevalent in these contexts.
Why the other options are wrong:
B.) A peer-reviewed academic journal:
Peer-reviewed journals are typically scrutinized for biases and require evidence-based arguments, making them less susceptible to cognitive bias than personal opinions on social media.
C.) A newspaper article about a recent baseball game:
This type of reporting is generally based on facts and direct observations, so while biases can influence how the story is framed, it is less likely to be significantly impacted by cognitive bias compared to unqualified sources.
D.) A history textbook written by a reputable historian:
A reputable historian’s work is less likely to be impacted by cognitive bias due to rigorous research, analysis, and peer review, though bias can still be present in the interpretation of events.
Critical thinkers are constantly alert for possible biases in their own thinking. When the potential for bias is present, which two actions may strong critical thinkers take to help minimize bias in their thinking
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Employ heuristics for decision-making
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Look for consensus on social media
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Broaden their sources of information
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Slow their thought process
Explanation
Correct Answers:
C.) Broaden their sources of information
D.) Slow their thought process
Explanation:
Strong critical thinkers minimize bias by considering multiple perspectives and sources of information rather than relying on a single viewpoint. Slowing down the thought process helps them analyze information more carefully and avoid impulsive or emotionally driven decisions.
Why the other options are wrong:
A.) Employ heuristics for decision-making: Heuristics are mental shortcuts that can sometimes lead to bias rather than minimize it. While useful in some contexts, they often oversimplify complex issues.
B.) Look for consensus on social media: Social media often reinforces biases rather than challenges them. It tends to create echo chambers where people are exposed to opinions that align with their own, rather than providing balanced perspectives.
A young person is wearing a tie-dyed shirt and driving a Volkswagen (VW) bus. Based on this, another individual concludes that this person has liberal political views.
Which bias does this reasoning reflect
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Availability bias
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Anchoring and adjustment bias
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Confirmation bias
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Representativeness bias
Explanation
Correct Answer:
D.) Representativeness bias
Explanation:
Representativeness bias occurs when people judge the probability of something based on how well it fits a stereotype rather than considering actual statistical likelihood. In this case, the individual assumes that wearing a tie-dyed shirt and driving a VW bus means the young person must have liberal political views, even though these traits do not necessarily determine political beliefs.
Why the other options are wrong:
A.) Availability bias: This bias happens when people judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily they can recall similar examples. The conclusion here is based on stereotypes, not personal recall of past instances.
B.) Anchoring and adjustment bias: This bias occurs when someone relies too heavily on an initial piece of information (the "anchor") and fails to adjust their thinking sufficiently. There is no clear "anchor" being used in this reasoning.
C.) Confirmation bias: Confirmation bias happens when people favor information that supports their existing beliefs and ignore contrary evidence. In this case, the person is making an assumption rather than selectively interpreting evidence to confirm a pre-existing belief.
Consider the following argument: Smith inspected 990 jellybeans in the jar. Each of the beans Smith inspected is red. Therefore, all 1000 of the beans in the jar are red. Which kind of argument is this
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A strong argument
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Deductive argument
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A weak argument
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A valid argument
Explanation
Correct Answer:
A.) A strong argument
Explanation:
This is an inductive argument because it makes a generalization based on a sample (990 jellybeans) to infer something about a larger population (all 1000 jellybeans). The argument is strong because the sample size (990 out of 1000) is large enough to make it very likely that the conclusion is true, even though it is not guaranteed. The more jellybeans Smith inspects, the stronger the argument becomes.
Why the Other Options Are Wrong:
B.) Deductive argument
Why it’s wrong: A deductive argument is one where the premises guarantee the truth of the conclusion. Here, the premises do not guarantee that all 1000 jellybeans are red; they suggest it is likely, but they don't ensure it, so the argument is not deductive.
C.) A weak argument
Why it’s wrong: The argument is strong, not weak. Given the large number of jellybeans inspected (990 out of 1000), this is a strong inductive argument, not weak.
D.) A valid argument
Why it’s wrong: Validity applies to deductive arguments, where the conclusion must follow from the premises. In this case, it is not a deductive argument, so the concept of validity does not apply.
A high school geology teacher asks her class whether Mount Everest is taller than 8,000 feet. Most students guess that it is. Then the teacher offers extra credit for correctly guessing the actual height of the mountain. Answers range from 6,000 feet to 16,000 feet, but nobody comes close to the actual height of Mount Everest (which is 29,000 feet). What cognitive bias explains why students' guesses are around 8,000 feet
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Representativeness
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Selection bias
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Anchoring
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Alief
Explanation
Correct Answer:
C.) Anchoring
Explanation:
The students' guesses are influenced by the initial anchor of 8,000 feet, which was presented to them at the start of the question. They use this number as a reference point, leading their estimates to be close to it, even though the true value (29,000 feet) is much higher.
Why the other options are wrong:
A.) Representativeness:
Representativeness bias involves making judgments based on how similar something is to a stereotype, which is not the case here. The students are influenced by an arbitrary number, not a stereotype.
B.) Selection bias:
Selection bias occurs when certain data or individuals are systematically excluded, which doesn't apply to the situation of students guessing a height based on an anchor.
D.) Alief:
Alief refers to a belief or attitude that is automatic or unconscious, which isn't the main explanation here. The students' estimates are more a result of anchoring bias than an automatic belief or reaction.
Consider the following argument:
A pen is a writing utensil. Sometimes, animals are kept in a pen. Thus, sometimes, animals are kept in a writing utensil.
What fallacy is found in this argument
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The fallacy of equivocation
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The fallacy of begging the question
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The fallacy of sweeping generalization
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The appeal to popularity fallacy
Explanation
Correct Answer:
A.) The fallacy of equivocation
Explanation:
The fallacy of equivocation occurs when a word is used with different meanings in an argument, which causes confusion. In this case, the word "pen" is used with two different meanings: one as a writing utensil and the other as an enclosure for animals. The argument misleadingly shifts between these meanings to create a false conclusion.
Why the other options are wrong:
B.) The fallacy of begging the question: This fallacy occurs when the argument assumes the truth of the very thing it is trying to prove, which isn't the case here.
C.) The fallacy of sweeping generalization: This fallacy happens when a general rule is applied too broadly, but that is not what happens in this case.
D.) The appeal to popularity fallacy: This fallacy happens when something is deemed true because many people believe it, which is not relevant to the argument presented here.
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Frequently Asked Question
These questions are designed to help students improve their critical thinking skills by evaluating arguments, identifying logical fallacies, and assessing the quality of evidence. They align with PHIL 1020 D265 Critical Thinking: Reason and Evidence.
The questions focus on: Logical fallacies (e.g., appeal to authority, circular reasoning, false cause) Evaluating evidence and reasoning Distinguishing between correlation and causation Identifying weak vs. strong arguments
Students taking PHIL 1020 D265 or anyone interested in improving their reasoning, argument analysis, and critical thinking skills.
These questions help students recognize flawed reasoning, construct stronger arguments, and develop analytical skills essential for academic success in philosophy, law, business, and other disciplines.
New questions are regularly generated to provide fresh challenges and cover different aspects of reasoning and argument evaluation.
You can find additional critical thinking practice questions on ulosca.com, where curated exam prep resources are available.