Technology and Ethics: Emerging Trends and Society (D773)

Explanation:

Act Utilitarianism determines the morality of an action solely by its consequences, aiming to produce the greatest happiness or utility. Because consequences are often unpredictable and can be influenced by factors outside the agent’s control, critics argue that this approach makes moral judgment dependent on “moral luck.” An action performed with the best intentions could be deemed wrong if unforeseen outcomes are harmful, while a reckless action could be considered right if it accidentally produces good results. This dependence on results beyond the individual’s control is a key criticism of Act Utilitarianism.

Correct Answer:

Act Utilitarianism

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Deontological Ethics

Deontological theories, such as Kantian ethics, focus on the intention and adherence to duty rather than on the consequences, so they are not subject to the problem of moral luck in the same way.

Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics evaluates moral character and the cultivation of virtues, emphasizing the agent’s disposition rather than external outcomes, so it does not primarily rely on uncontrollable results.

Social Contract Theory

Social Contract Theory centers on the agreements and rules established within society to maintain order and mutual benefit. It is concerned with the legitimacy of these agreements, not the unpredictable outcomes of individual actions.

Explanation:

The People’s Computer Company (PCC), active in the 1970s, aimed to make computing accessible to everyone by fostering computer literacy, offering workshops, and providing affordable computing resources to schools and communities. However, PCC did not develop the first personal computer operating system. Their mission was educational and community-driven rather than focused on pioneering commercial software or operating system development.

Correct Answer:

Developing the first personal computer operating system

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Promoting computer literacy among the public

PCC was deeply committed to helping the public learn about computers and understand how to use them effectively.

Creating affordable computing resources for schools

Providing low-cost access to computing technology for educational institutions was a key part of PCC’s community mission.

Facilitating community workshops on programming

Workshops and classes designed to teach programming skills were central to PCC’s efforts to democratize computer knowledge.

Explanation:

In ethical theory, especially within Immanuel Kant's deontological framework, perfect duties are those moral obligations that admit no exceptions and must be carried out in all circumstances. Examples include the duty not to lie or the duty to keep promises. Imperfect duties, on the other hand, are moral obligations that are important but allow for flexibility in how and when they are fulfilled. Duties like beneficence or helping others fall into this category; one is required to pursue these ends, but there is discretion regarding when, how, and to what extent to act. The second option captures this distinction accurately by emphasizing the strict, exceptionless nature of perfect duties and the generally binding yet flexible nature of imperfect duties.

Correct Answer:

Perfect duties are obligations that must be fulfilled without exception, while imperfect duties are obligations that should be fulfilled generally but allow for exceptions.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Perfect duties are obligations that can be ignored in certain situations, while imperfect duties must always be fulfilled.

This reverses the actual distinction. Perfect duties are the ones that cannot be ignored under any circumstance, whereas imperfect duties can be approached with flexibility. Claiming that perfect duties can be ignored misrepresents the core concept of an absolute duty in Kantian ethics.

Perfect duties are moral obligations that apply only to specific individuals, while imperfect duties apply universally to all.

Both perfect and imperfect duties are universal moral obligations according to Kant, meaning they apply to all rational beings. The distinction does not concern to whom the duty applies, but rather how strictly the duty must be followed. Therefore, this option mischaracterizes the universality of these duties.

Perfect duties are duties that can be delegated to others, while imperfect duties cannot be assigned.

Delegation is not a relevant factor in distinguishing perfect from imperfect duties. Whether or not someone else can carry out a task does not define the nature of the moral obligation. The key difference is the strictness of the duty and whether it allows for exceptions, not the possibility of delegation.

Explanation:

Rules-based AI systems, often called expert systems, operate using a set of preprogrammed rules or algorithms to mimic human decision-making in specific domains. They apply “if-then” logic to evaluate information and provide conclusions or recommendations much like a human expert would. Because they follow predetermined rules rather than learning autonomously, describing them as expert systems that use preprogrammed algorithms to make human-like decisions is accurate.

Correct Answer:

true

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

false

This is incorrect because rules-based AI indeed relies on preprogrammed rules to replicate aspects of human reasoning within a defined area. Denying this misrepresents how such systems function.

Explanation:

The Principle of Utility, central to utilitarianism as developed by philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, evaluates the moral worth of an action by its ability to maximize happiness or pleasure and minimize pain. An action is morally right if it results in the greatest net benefit—more pleasure than pain—for the largest number of people affected. This focus on overall consequences and collective well-being defines utilitarian ethical reasoning.

Correct Answer:

An action is considered good if it produces more pleasure than pain for the greatest number of people

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

An action is morally right if it is performed out of duty, regardless of the consequences

This is a core principle of Kantian ethics, which values duty and intention over outcomes.

An action is deemed wrong if it is performed without the consent of all parties involved

While consent can be ethically significant, the Principle of Utility evaluates morality based on overall happiness, not solely on consent.

An action is ethical if it aligns with societal norms and traditions

This aligns with cultural relativism or conventionalism, not with the utilitarian calculation of pleasure and pain.

Explanation:

Tim Berners-Lee is credited with inventing the World Wide Web in 1989–1990. He created the first web browser and web server and designed the fundamental protocols such as HTTP and HTML, which enabled the seamless sharing of information over the internet. His work provided the essential framework upon which the modern web is built.

Correct Answer:

He created the first web browser and established the foundational protocols for the web

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

He developed the first search engine for the internet

The first widely recognized search engines came later and were developed by others, not Berners-Lee.

He invented the concept of packet-switching

Packet-switching, critical to networking, was developed earlier by researchers like Paul Baran and Donald Davies.

He was the first to commercialize web browsing software

Berners-Lee focused on open standards and free access, not commercialization of web browsers.

Explanation:

Subjective relativism asserts that moral judgments depend on individual perspectives rather than universal standards. A central argument in its favor is that equally rational, intelligent people often disagree about moral questions without either side being objectively wrong. This shows that morality can be personal and subjective, shaped by individual experiences and reasoning, rather than grounded in universally accepted truths.

Correct Answer:

Intelligent individuals can hold opposing views on ethical matters

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Moral truths are universal and objective

This reflects moral objectivism, which is the opposite of subjective relativism’s claim that morality depends on personal belief.

Different cultures have distinct moral frameworks

This supports cultural relativism, which focuses on society-wide norms rather than individual moral autonomy.

Moral debates lead to clear and agreed-upon conclusions

Subjective relativism recognizes that moral debates often remain unresolved because individuals can have irreconcilable personal views.

Explanation:

Utilitarianism evaluates actions based on their overall consequences, aiming to maximize happiness or utility for the greatest number of people. Ann’s mass email likely pleased those interested in ordering cookies or supporting the Girl Scouts, producing positive outcomes such as enjoyment and community support. Although some recipients were unhappy with receiving the email, the discontent of a relatively small group does not outweigh the broader benefits to the majority who appreciated the message and the good cause it promoted. From a utilitarian perspective, the action is ethically justified if the overall happiness and benefits generated exceed the annoyance or discomfort caused to a smaller group.

Correct Answer:

Ann's action is justified as it benefits the majority who ordered cookies, outweighing the dissatisfaction of others.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Ann's action is wrong because it disregards the preferences of the 40 unhappy recipients.

Utilitarianism focuses on the net balance of pleasure over pain for all affected parties. While the dissatisfaction of some recipients matters, it is not decisive if the action leads to greater overall happiness. This option adopts more of a deontological view focused on individual rights rather than the utilitarian calculation of total consequences.

Ann's action is ethically neutral since it did not cause any significant harm.

Utilitarianism rarely classifies actions as simply neutral when there are measurable positive and negative outcomes. The email generated both benefits and minor inconveniences, so the action cannot be accurately described as neutral; instead, it should be assessed by weighing those effects.

Ann's action is acceptable as long as she included an option for recipients to opt-out of future emails.

While offering an opt-out respects preferences and might reduce future harm, utilitarian ethics still judge the action primarily by its net happiness or unhappiness in the present situation. The absence or presence of an opt-out mechanism is secondary to the overall balance of positive versus negative consequences.

Explanation:

Rule Utilitarianism focuses on establishing general moral rules that, when followed consistently, promote the greatest overall happiness. A key advantage of this approach is that it offers a stable and predictable framework for ethical decision-making. By relying on well-tested rules, it avoids the need to calculate outcomes for every individual act, ensuring consistency and fairness across different situations.

Correct Answer:

It provides a consistent framework that can be applied across various situations.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

It requires a detailed analysis of every possible outcome for each decision

This describes Act Utilitarianism, which evaluates each specific act rather than applying general rules.

It allows for personal biases to influence moral judgments

Rule Utilitarianism seeks to minimize subjective bias by applying universal principles aimed at overall happiness.

It prioritizes individual preferences over societal norms

The theory prioritizes the collective well-being through general rules, not individual preferences.