Technology and Ethics: Emerging Trends and Society (D773)

Explanation:

ARPANET, the precursor to the modern internet, pioneered the use of packet-switching technology. This method breaks data into small packets that travel independently across various routes and are reassembled at the destination. Packet switching greatly improved network efficiency, allowed dynamic rerouting in case of failures, and eliminated the vulnerability of a single point of failure that centralized or circuit-switched systems faced.

Correct Answer:

Packet-switching technology

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Centralized server architecture

ARPANET was designed to avoid centralization; a decentralized structure prevented the entire network from failing if one node went down.

Analog signal transmission

ARPANET transmitted digital data, not analog signals, ensuring reliable, high-speed data exchange.

Direct circuit connections

Circuit switching requires a dedicated path for each communication session, which is less flexible and more prone to disruption than packet switching.

Explanation:

Telecommuting software and mobile devices allow employers to monitor, communicate with, and assign tasks to employees virtually at any time. This constant connectivity raises ethical issues such as work-life balance, privacy, and employee autonomy. While these tools increase efficiency, they also blur boundaries between personal and professional life, requiring careful ethical consideration.

Correct Answer:

Telecommuting software and mobile devices

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Mechanical typewriters

Typewriters are limited to producing documents and have no capacity for real-time monitoring or remote connectivity.

Analog telephones

Analog telephones allow voice communication but do not enable constant tracking or digital oversight of employee activities.

Printed encyclopedias

Printed encyclopedias provide information but do not impact workplace monitoring or connectivity in any ethical sense.

Explanation:

Subjective Relativism holds that moral truth depends solely on what an individual believes is right or wrong. The strongest critique of this view is that it permits anyone to declare any action morally acceptable simply because they personally approve of it. This undermines the possibility of objective moral criticism and makes it impossible to resolve moral disputes through rational dialogue, since each person’s opinion is equally valid regardless of reasoning or consequences.

Correct Answer:

It allows individuals to justify any action based solely on personal preference

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

It promotes a universal standard of morality applicable to all individuals

Subjective Relativism explicitly rejects universal moral standards, focusing instead on personal judgment, so this misrepresents the concept.

It encourages critical reasoning and rational discourse in moral judgments

Because the theory bases morality on individual preference rather than shared reasoning, it does not necessarily promote critical moral debate or rational justification.

It emphasizes the importance of cultural context in ethical evaluations

This describes cultural relativism, which bases morality on societal norms rather than individual opinion, making it a different concept from subjective relativism.

Explanation:

The teletype, or teleprinter, was a major communication breakthrough in the early 20th century. It enabled the transmission of typed messages—essentially written documents—over telegraph or telephone lines across long distances. This technology was critical for business, government, and news organizations because it allowed near-instant communication of written information well before the widespread use of fax machines or email. The fax machine did not become practical until later in the 20th century, and devices like the photocopier and typewriter were not designed for long-distance document transmission.

Correct Answer:

Teletype

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Fax machine

Although fax technology allows for the transmission of documents, it became common only in the mid-to-late 20th century, not the early 1900s, so it does not fit the time period specified.

Photocopier

A photocopier reproduces documents but cannot transmit them over long distances. It is a duplication tool, not a communication device.

Typewriter

While the typewriter allowed people to create written documents more efficiently, it did not provide a method for transmitting those documents over distance.

Explanation:

Artificial intelligence with facial recognition enables real-time identification and tracking of individuals without their consent, creating profound privacy and surveillance concerns. This technology can be used by governments or corporations to monitor people’s movements and behaviors, challenging ethical norms around autonomy and informed consent.

Correct Answer:

Artificial intelligence with facial recognition

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Blockchain systems

While blockchain raises issues such as environmental impact, it is primarily valued for its transparency and security rather than for large-scale personal surveillance.

Traditional telephone networks

These are established communication systems and do not inherently involve advanced data analysis that threatens privacy on the scale of AI surveillance.

Manual record keeping

Manual records lack the speed and reach to gather and analyze personal data at the massive scale that triggers current privacy debates.

Explanation:

Divine Command Theory holds that moral standards are grounded in the commands or will of God. According to this view, an action is morally right if it aligns with God's will as communicated through sacred texts or divine revelation. This approach places ultimate moral authority in God rather than in human reasoning, social agreement, or consequences, making obedience to divine commands the foundation of ethical behavior.

Correct Answer:

Good actions are aligned with God's will as revealed in holy texts.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Moral actions are determined by societal consensus.

This reflects cultural relativism, where morality depends on what a society agrees upon, not on divine authority. Divine Command Theory does not rely on human consensus.

Good actions are those that promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

This is the principle of utilitarianism, which bases morality on outcomes and overall happiness rather than on divine mandates.

Moral actions are based on individual reasoning and autonomy.

This describes ethical theories such as Kantian deontology, where rationality and individual moral reasoning determine right and wrong, not God’s will.

Explanation:

Kantianism, founded by Immanuel Kant, asserts that morality is grounded in universal moral laws derived from reason. It emphasizes that every person possesses intrinsic worth and must be treated as an end in themselves, never merely as a means. Actions are judged by whether they align with these universal principles, reflecting respect for the rational dignity of all individuals.

Correct Answer:

Kantianism

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Utilitarianism

This theory evaluates morality based on the consequences of actions and their ability to maximize overall happiness, not on universal moral laws or intrinsic dignity.

Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism holds that moral standards vary by culture and rejects universal moral principles, which is contrary to Kantian ethics.

Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics focuses on character development and the cultivation of virtues, rather than adherence to universal moral laws.

Explanation:

Rawlsian Justice, proposed by John Rawls, is centered on principles of fairness and equality. It introduces the concept of the “veil of ignorance,” where individuals design a just society without knowing their social position, ensuring that any inequalities benefit the least advantaged. This framework specifically focuses on the fair distribution of resources and opportunities, making it distinct from other ethical theories that prioritize consequences, duties, or implicit social agreements without the same explicit emphasis on distributive justice.

Correct Answer:

Rawlsian Justice

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Utilitarianism

This theory aims to maximize overall happiness or utility, which may allow unequal distribution of resources if it increases total welfare, not necessarily ensuring fairness or equality.

Kantianism

Kant’s deontological ethics is based on duty and universal moral laws rather than the equitable distribution of resources.

Social Contract Theory

While related to agreements for societal order, classical social contract theorists like Hobbes and Locke focus on the formation of government and social order, not specifically on addressing economic inequalities or resource distribution.

Explanation:

Immanuel Kant’s first formulation of the Categorical Imperative states that one should act only according to maxims that can be willed to become universal laws. This requires that moral actions be consistently applicable to everyone without contradiction. Always telling the truth exemplifies this principle because honesty can be universalized without logical inconsistency, whereas lying or breaking promises cannot be rationally willed as universal laws.

Correct Answer:

Always telling the truth, regardless of the consequences, because honesty should be a universal law

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Lying to a friend to spare their feelings, as it may seem justified in that moment

This violates the Categorical Imperative because if everyone lied to spare feelings, trust and truthful communication would be impossible, creating a contradiction.

Helping a neighbor only when it is convenient for you, as it does not affect your own interests

This reflects a self-interested or conditional approach and cannot be universalized as a moral duty, since it lacks the unconditional principle Kant requires.

Making a promise with the intention of breaking it later if it becomes inconvenient

If promise-breaking were universalized, the concept of a promise would lose all meaning, making this action inherently contradictory to Kant’s first formulation.