Technology and Ethics: Emerging Trends and Society (D773)

Explanation:

The Principle of Utility, central to utilitarianism as developed by philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, evaluates the moral worth of an action by its ability to maximize happiness or pleasure and minimize pain. An action is morally right if it results in the greatest net benefit—more pleasure than pain—for the largest number of people affected. This focus on overall consequences and collective well-being defines utilitarian ethical reasoning.

Correct Answer:

An action is considered good if it produces more pleasure than pain for the greatest number of people

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

An action is morally right if it is performed out of duty, regardless of the consequences

This is a core principle of Kantian ethics, which values duty and intention over outcomes.

An action is deemed wrong if it is performed without the consent of all parties involved

While consent can be ethically significant, the Principle of Utility evaluates morality based on overall happiness, not solely on consent.

An action is ethical if it aligns with societal norms and traditions

This aligns with cultural relativism or conventionalism, not with the utilitarian calculation of pleasure and pain.

Explanation:

For Immanuel Kant, good will is the central concept of moral philosophy. It refers to the steadfast intention to act from a sense of moral duty, guided by reason and the categorical imperative, not by personal feelings, desires, or the pursuit of favorable outcomes. An action has genuine moral worth only when it is done because it is the right thing to do, irrespective of consequences or societal approval.

Correct Answer:

The motivation to act in accordance with moral duty, regardless of personal inclinations

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

The intention to act based on personal desires and emotions.

Acting from personal desires or emotions is inconsistent with Kantian ethics, which values reason and duty over subjective inclinations.

The commitment to perform actions solely based on their outcomes.

This reflects consequentialist thinking, such as utilitarianism, not Kant’s deontological framework where intentions matter more than results.

The belief that moral actions should be judged by their societal impact.

Judging morality based on societal impact again focuses on outcomes and collective opinion, which Kantian ethics does not consider the foundation of moral worth.

Explanation:

Rule Utilitarianism focuses on establishing general moral rules that, when followed consistently, promote the greatest overall happiness. A key advantage of this approach is that it offers a stable and predictable framework for ethical decision-making. By relying on well-tested rules, it avoids the need to calculate outcomes for every individual act, ensuring consistency and fairness across different situations.

Correct Answer:

It provides a consistent framework that can be applied across various situations.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

It requires a detailed analysis of every possible outcome for each decision

This describes Act Utilitarianism, which evaluates each specific act rather than applying general rules.

It allows for personal biases to influence moral judgments

Rule Utilitarianism seeks to minimize subjective bias by applying universal principles aimed at overall happiness.

It prioritizes individual preferences over societal norms

The theory prioritizes the collective well-being through general rules, not individual preferences.

Explanation:

ARPANET, the precursor to the modern internet, pioneered the use of packet-switching technology. This method breaks data into small packets that travel independently across various routes and are reassembled at the destination. Packet switching greatly improved network efficiency, allowed dynamic rerouting in case of failures, and eliminated the vulnerability of a single point of failure that centralized or circuit-switched systems faced.

Correct Answer:

Packet-switching technology

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Centralized server architecture

ARPANET was designed to avoid centralization; a decentralized structure prevented the entire network from failing if one node went down.

Analog signal transmission

ARPANET transmitted digital data, not analog signals, ensuring reliable, high-speed data exchange.

Direct circuit connections

Circuit switching requires a dedicated path for each communication session, which is less flexible and more prone to disruption than packet switching.

Explanation:

Rule utilitarianism holds that instead of judging each individual act solely by its immediate consequences, we should adopt general moral rules that, if consistently followed, will produce the greatest overall happiness for society. By focusing on rules rather than single acts, this approach aims to create long-term stability and predictability in moral decision-making. The emphasis is on forming guidelines that, when universally applied, lead to the best outcomes for the greatest number.

Correct Answer:

It focuses on adopting moral rules that maximize overall happiness when followed by everyone.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

It evaluates the consequences of individual actions to determine their moral worth.

This describes act utilitarianism, which assesses each action separately based on its specific consequences, not the rule-based framework of rule utilitarianism.

It prioritizes individual rights over collective well-being.

While rule utilitarianism can support individual rights if they promote overall happiness, its primary concern is the greatest good for the greatest number, not placing individual rights above collective outcomes.

It emphasizes the importance of intentions behind actions rather than their outcomes.

This aligns more with deontological ethics, especially Kantian ethics, which values intentions and duty over consequences, differing from utilitarianism’s outcome-based reasoning.

Explanation:

Information Technology refers to the use of computer systems, networks, and related processes to store, retrieve, process, and distribute information. It encompasses hardware, software, and data systems. While IT departments coordinate with facilities management, direct control of building power and utilities is generally outside the scope of IT. Therefore, the statement claiming IT includes controls for facility power and utilities is false.

Correct Answer:

IT includes controls for facility power and utilities.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

IT includes the technology and processes involved with technology

This is true because IT involves both the hardware and the processes necessary for managing information systems.

IT is concerned with both hardware and software

This accurately describes IT, which integrates both hardware infrastructure and software applications.

IT includes systems for the processing and distribution of data

This is correct since handling and distributing data are core functions of IT operations.

Explanation:

COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) was created in the late 1950s with the goal of serving business data processing needs, including finance and administration. Its English-like syntax made it accessible for business users and programmers. The U.S. Department of Defense played a significant role in standardizing COBOL, ensuring its widespread adoption in government and corporate data systems for decades.

Correct Answer:

COBOL

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

FORTRAN

Designed primarily for scientific and engineering calculations, not specifically for business applications.

Pascal

Developed mainly for teaching structured programming and general-purpose computing rather than business data processing.

LISP

Created for artificial intelligence research and symbolic processing, not for business-oriented applications.

Explanation:

A negative right is one that obligates others not to interfere with an individual’s actions. It requires only that others refrain from certain behaviors rather than providing any service or benefit. Classic examples include the right to free speech or freedom of religion, which are protected as long as others do not obstruct or coerce. This contrasts with positive rights, which entail an obligation on others to provide a good or service.

Correct Answer:

A right that can be guaranteed by others refraining from interference

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

A right that requires others to provide a service or benefit to you

This describes a positive right, such as the right to education or healthcare, which involves action or resources from others, not mere noninterference.

A right that is unconditional and cannot be restricted under any circumstances

Few rights are truly absolute; even negative rights can face limitations in situations like national security or harm prevention. This description is overly broad and inaccurate.

A right that is only applicable in specific situations or contexts

Negative rights apply generally and are not limited to particular circumstances. This option confuses scope of application with the essential nature of the right.

Explanation:

Cultural relativism holds that moral standards are determined by cultural norms and that no universal moral code applies to all societies. It argues that we should understand and respect each culture’s moral framework within its own context. This principle discourages judging one culture by the standards of another and emphasizes tolerance and understanding of moral diversity.

Correct Answer:

Different cultures have unique moral frameworks that should be respected

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

All societies should adhere to a universal set of moral guidelines

This reflects moral universalism, which cultural relativism explicitly rejects.

Moral standards are absolute and should not vary between cultures

This is the opposite of cultural relativism, which holds that moral standards do vary and depend on cultural context.

One society's moral values are superior to those of another

Cultural relativism denies the idea of moral superiority between cultures, promoting respect and tolerance instead.