Technology and Ethics: Emerging Trends and Society (D773)

Explanation:

Ayn Rand’s articulation of Ethical Egoism holds that each person should act in a way that advances their own rational self-interest and long-term well-being. Rand argued that pursuing one’s own happiness and flourishing is a moral duty, provided it is done through rational means and without infringing on the equal rights of others. The focus is on maximizing the individual’s own long-term benefits rather than sacrificing oneself for others or conforming to societal expectations.

Correct Answer:

The morally right action is one that maximizes the long-term benefits for oneself

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Individuals should prioritize the well-being of others over their own interests

This reflects altruism, which Rand explicitly rejected, as she believed self-sacrifice for others’ sake was not a moral requirement.

Moral actions are determined by societal norms and cultural contexts

This describes cultural relativism, where morality is based on collective societal standards rather than individual rational self-interest.

Ethical decisions should be made based on the greatest good for the greatest number

This is the core idea of utilitarianism, which prioritizes overall happiness or utility instead of focusing on the individual’s rational self-benefit.

Explanation:

Virtue Theory, rooted in the philosophy of Aristotle, focuses on the cultivation of moral character rather than adherence to rules or the calculation of consequences. This framework holds that living a virtuous life—developing qualities such as courage, honesty, and temperance—leads to moral excellence and right action. Instead of asking, “What should I do?” virtue ethics asks, “What kind of person should I be?” emphasizing moral development and habitual good behavior as the foundation of ethical decision-making.

Correct Answer:

Virtue Theory

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Deontological Ethics

Deontological theories, such as those of Immanuel Kant, emphasize duties and adherence to universal moral rules, focusing on the morality of specific actions rather than the development of character.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism evaluates actions by their consequences and aims to maximize overall happiness or utility, not by cultivating virtues or personal character.

Social Contract Theory

Social Contract Theory centers on the agreements or rules that individuals form collectively to ensure social order and mutual benefit, focusing on societal structures rather than individual moral character.

Explanation:

Tim Berners-Lee is credited with inventing the World Wide Web in 1989–1990. He created the first web browser and web server and designed the fundamental protocols such as HTTP and HTML, which enabled the seamless sharing of information over the internet. His work provided the essential framework upon which the modern web is built.

Correct Answer:

He created the first web browser and established the foundational protocols for the web

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

He developed the first search engine for the internet

The first widely recognized search engines came later and were developed by others, not Berners-Lee.

He invented the concept of packet-switching

Packet-switching, critical to networking, was developed earlier by researchers like Paul Baran and Donald Davies.

He was the first to commercialize web browsing software

Berners-Lee focused on open standards and free access, not commercialization of web browsers.

Explanation:

Virtue ethics focuses primarily on the development of moral character and the cultivation of virtues rather than on strict rules or the consequences of specific actions. While this approach highlights the importance of being a good person, it can be criticized for lacking clear mechanisms to judge or hold people accountable when they commit wrong acts. Because virtue ethics emphasizes a person’s character and intentions over discrete actions, it can be difficult to assign responsibility or impose consequences when someone acts immorally. This creates a perceived gap in accountability compared with rule-based or consequence-based theories, which more directly address the evaluation of actions themselves.

Correct Answer:

It undermines the ability to hold individuals accountable for their wrongdoings.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

It provides clear guidelines for government policy.

Virtue ethics is often critiqued for doing the opposite—it offers broad ideals about character rather than specific, actionable policies. Its emphasis on personal virtue does not translate easily into detailed governmental regulations or public policy frameworks.

It allows for universal agreement on moral character traits.

There is no universal consensus on which traits are virtues or how they should be prioritized across different cultures and societies. In fact, virtue ethics is frequently criticized for being culturally relative and context-dependent, which makes universal agreement unlikely.

It emphasizes the importance of societal norms over individual character.

Virtue ethics centers on the individual’s moral development and cultivation of virtues, not on conforming to societal norms. Although society can influence what is considered virtuous, the theory itself stresses the internal character of the moral agent rather than mere adherence to collective customs.

Explanation:

Smartphones and similar technologies have transformed how people connect, offering rapid communication and access to information, which strengthens social connectivity. However, these benefits come with potential drawbacks such as overreliance, reduced in-person interactions, and behavioral changes like compulsive checking or distraction. The adoption of such technology reshapes societal expectations for availability and communication, influencing both individual habits and collective norms.

Correct Answer:

They can lead to increased social connectivity but may also foster dependency and reduce face-to-face interactions.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

They solely enhance communication without any negative effects.

This overlooks the well-documented downsides of smartphone use, such as addiction, mental health concerns, and decreased interpersonal skills.

They eliminate the need for traditional forms of communication entirely.

While smartphones reduce reliance on some older methods, face-to-face and other traditional communication forms remain essential in many personal and professional contexts.

They have no significant impact on individual behavior or societal norms.

Extensive research shows that smartphones significantly influence how people interact, work, and socialize, altering expectations for constant connectivity and shaping cultural practices.

Explanation:

A common critique of utilitarianism is the difficulty of measuring and comparing all possible consequences of an action using a single, uniform scale of happiness or utility. Determining and quantifying every outcome for all affected parties is often impractical and subjective. This makes applying utilitarian principles challenging in real-world decision-making, as it assumes we can reliably predict and evaluate the overall balance of pleasure and pain.

Correct Answer:

Utilitarianism requires all consequences to be evaluated on a uniform scale

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Utilitarianism fails to consider the emotional impact of decisions

Utilitarianism explicitly considers emotional states like pleasure and pain as part of its calculus, so it does not ignore emotional impact.

Utilitarianism prioritizes individual rights over collective outcomes

In fact, utilitarianism can sacrifice individual rights if doing so increases overall happiness, so this misrepresents the theory.

Utilitarianism inherently promotes inequality among different groups

While some applications may lead to unequal outcomes, utilitarianism does not inherently promote inequality; its focus is on maximizing total utility regardless of distribution.

Explanation:

A major critique of cultural moral relativism is that it denies the possibility of universal moral standards. The argument against simply accepting all moral perspectives as equally valid is that some moral truths—such as prohibitions against murder, torture, or slavery—should apply across all societies, regardless of cultural differences. Claiming that any moral perspective is justified merely because it is culturally accepted can excuse harmful practices and prevent moral progress. Thus, the existence of differing moral perspectives does not itself prove those perspectives are ethically sound.

Correct Answer:

Moral truths are universal and should apply to all societies regardless of their beliefs.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Cultural practices are inherently superior to moral reasoning.

This statement elevates culture above critical moral evaluation and does not provide an argument against cultural relativism; it actually supports uncritical acceptance of cultural practices.

Societies evolve independently, making their moral views equally valid.

This reflects the very idea of cultural relativism that the question challenges. Independent evolution does not guarantee moral correctness or universal ethical validity.

Moral relativism promotes greater understanding between cultures.

While moral relativism may encourage tolerance and understanding, it is not an argument against accepting differing moral perspectives. Instead, it supports coexistence without necessarily addressing the question of universal moral truth.

Explanation:

In ethical theory, especially within Immanuel Kant's deontological framework, perfect duties are those moral obligations that admit no exceptions and must be carried out in all circumstances. Examples include the duty not to lie or the duty to keep promises. Imperfect duties, on the other hand, are moral obligations that are important but allow for flexibility in how and when they are fulfilled. Duties like beneficence or helping others fall into this category; one is required to pursue these ends, but there is discretion regarding when, how, and to what extent to act. The second option captures this distinction accurately by emphasizing the strict, exceptionless nature of perfect duties and the generally binding yet flexible nature of imperfect duties.

Correct Answer:

Perfect duties are obligations that must be fulfilled without exception, while imperfect duties are obligations that should be fulfilled generally but allow for exceptions.

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Perfect duties are obligations that can be ignored in certain situations, while imperfect duties must always be fulfilled.

This reverses the actual distinction. Perfect duties are the ones that cannot be ignored under any circumstance, whereas imperfect duties can be approached with flexibility. Claiming that perfect duties can be ignored misrepresents the core concept of an absolute duty in Kantian ethics.

Perfect duties are moral obligations that apply only to specific individuals, while imperfect duties apply universally to all.

Both perfect and imperfect duties are universal moral obligations according to Kant, meaning they apply to all rational beings. The distinction does not concern to whom the duty applies, but rather how strictly the duty must be followed. Therefore, this option mischaracterizes the universality of these duties.

Perfect duties are duties that can be delegated to others, while imperfect duties cannot be assigned.

Delegation is not a relevant factor in distinguishing perfect from imperfect duties. Whether or not someone else can carry out a task does not define the nature of the moral obligation. The key difference is the strictness of the duty and whether it allows for exceptions, not the possibility of delegation.

Explanation:

Immanuel Kant’s first formulation of the Categorical Imperative states that one should act only according to maxims that can be willed to become universal laws. This requires that moral actions be consistently applicable to everyone without contradiction. Always telling the truth exemplifies this principle because honesty can be universalized without logical inconsistency, whereas lying or breaking promises cannot be rationally willed as universal laws.

Correct Answer:

Always telling the truth, regardless of the consequences, because honesty should be a universal law

Why Other Options Are Wrong:

Lying to a friend to spare their feelings, as it may seem justified in that moment

This violates the Categorical Imperative because if everyone lied to spare feelings, trust and truthful communication would be impossible, creating a contradiction.

Helping a neighbor only when it is convenient for you, as it does not affect your own interests

This reflects a self-interested or conditional approach and cannot be universalized as a moral duty, since it lacks the unconditional principle Kant requires.

Making a promise with the intention of breaking it later if it becomes inconvenient

If promise-breaking were universalized, the concept of a promise would lose all meaning, making this action inherently contradictory to Kant’s first formulation.